TEXT BOOK 




ON 



AGRICULTURE. 



BY 



NrS^DAVIS, M.D. 



Mater omnium Artium, est Scientia 



NEW YORK : 

SAMUEL S. & WILLIAM WOOD 

26 1 Pearl Street. 



1848. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, by 

N. S. DAVIS, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern Dis- 
trict of New York. 






E. O. JENKINS, PRINTER, 
114 Nassau Street. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 

Page. 

Agricultural Science, 13 

Section 1. Agents productive of chemical changes in mat- 
ter — Caloric, Attraction, Light, Electricity, . 13 
" 2. Classification of Bodies, 20 
" 3. Chemical Nomenclature, or System of Naming, 21 
" 4. Laws of Chemical Combinations, , . 24 

CHAPTER II, 

Organic Elements, 26 

Inorganic Elements, . 3i 

CHAPTER III. 

Section 1 . Formation of Soils, ..... 37 
" 2. Classification of Soils, ..... 40 
" 3. Composition of Soils, ... .44 

CHAPTER IV. 

Section 1. Composition of Vegetables, .... 52 
« 2. Sources from which Living Vegetables derive 

their Ingredients, ..... 55 

CHAPTER V. 

The Means possessed by Man for fertilizing the Soil and 
adapting it for the growth of any Crop which 
he may desire, ; 58 



IV 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

The addition of Inorganic Substances as means of Fertilizing 

the Soil, 64 

Vegetable and Animal Substances as Fertilizers of the Soil, 65' 

CHAPTER VI. 

Section 1st. Inorganic Substances used as Manure, . 68 
" 2d. Organic or Vegetable and Animal Manures, 80 

CHAPTER VII. 

The best modes of Analyzing Vegetable Substances and 
Soils, with tables showing the composition of the 
various grains, grasses, soils, &.c, according 
to the analysis of the best chemists, . . 88 

Section 1 . Analysis of Soils, 89 

" 2. Analysis of Vegetables, .... 96 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Practical Agriculture and Horticulture, . • . 105- 

Section 1. Germination of Seeds, .... 106 

" 2. Influence of Caloric, Light and Electricity, . Ill 

" 3. Description of Particular Grains, Grasses, &c, 115- 

a 4. Rotation of Crops, 135 

" 5. Connection of Farm Stock with Vegetation, . 141 
44 6. Selection, Preservation, and Preparation of 
Seeds ; and the Propagation of Plants by Cut- 
tings, Layers, Buds, Grafts, &c. &c, . 



Conclusion, 



142 
146 



APPENDIX. 

Insects Injurious to Vegetation, 
Cecidomyia Tritici, or wheat fly, 
Cecidomyia Destructor, or Hessian fly, 
Calandra Granaria, or wheat weevil, 
Phalaena Noctua Devastator, or cut-worm 
Gortyna Zea, or spindle-worm of corn, 
Elator Lineatus, or wire-worm, 
Galeruca Vittata, or striped cucumber bug. 



149 
150 
160 
164 
165- 
166 
167 
168 



CONTENTS, 



Haltica Pubescens, or cucumber flea, 

Aphides, or plant lice, 

Clisiocampa Americana, or apple-tree caterpillar, 
Phalaena Vernata, or canker-worm, 
Saperda Bivittata, or apple-tree borer, 
Corpocapsa Pomonella, or apple worm, . 
Scolytus Pyri, or pear blight, 
Rhynchaenus Nenuphar, or plum weevil, 
iEgira Exitiosa, or peach borer, 
Clytus Pictus, or locust borer, 

Currant-bush worm, 

Artificial Manures, 



Page. 

169 
170 
172 
173 
177 
178 
180 
180 
182 
182 
183 
184 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Figure 1. Apparatus for forming Hydrogen, &c, 
" 2. A Crucible, .... 

" 3. Glass Flask, .... 

" 4. Test Glass, .... 

" 5. Evaporating Dish, 

PLATES. 

Plate I. Cecidomyia Tritici in its various states, 
" II. Cecidomyia Destructor in its different states, 

« III 

Figure 1. Rhynchaenus Nenuphar on the Plum. 
" 2. Calandra Granaria. 
" 3. Saperda Bivittata. 
" 4. Clytus Pictus. 



28 
90 
90 
91 
92 



151 
161 
176 



INTRODUCTION, 



It is now universally conceded that no branch of 
business is susceptible of receiving greater benefit 
from science, than Agriculture ; and that such ben- 
efits may be actually received, it is equally apparent 
that the subject must be introduced as a regular 
study in all our common schools and academies ; 
for although special agricultural schools and model 
farms may be established here and there, and be pro- 
ductive of much good, yet the common or district 
schools and the local academical institutions must 
ever constitute the main reliance of the great mass 
of the youth of this country for the sum total of their 
education. Hence we think a legislative committee 
never uttered a truer sentiment than the following, 
taken from the report of the Committee on Agricul- 
tural Schools in the Legislature of 1847. In refer- 
ence to the plan recommended by the Committee, 
the report says : f The plan alluded to is to encour- 
age the study of agriculture in the Normal School, 
and in the academies and local institutions which 



Vlll INTRODUCTION. 

are already established and endowed in all parts of 
the State. We would also encourage its study in our 
best common schools." 

It is well known that all the older class of schol- 
ars in our common schools, and many in the acade- 
mies, spend a part of each year with their parents in 
labor on the farms. In this way they might be con- 
stantly testing by practice the principles they learn 
in the schools ; or, in the language of the Committee' 
" The school and the farm by this plan become mu- 
tual aids. The principles are acquired in the school, 
and the scholar becomes ambitious to test them in the 
fields; from which it would follow that the whole 
State, with its different soils and climate, becomes 
one great experimental farm, every intelligent farmer 
an intelligent experimentalist, every farm a model 
farm, and every farmer's son a teacher, or, at least, 
an earnest learner." 

What a happy change would this make in the 
greatest and most important industrial pursuit of 
man ! And that the Committe referred to have re- 
commended the only effectual plan for accomplish- 
ing so desirable a result, we think no man, after due 
reflection, will deny. 

But the very first step in advancing the study of 
agriculture is the adoption of a text-book, suited to 
the condition of the schools. 



INTRODUCTION. IX 

To accomplish this object the State Agricultural 
Society offered a premium for the best work designed 
for this purpose. It was in answer to this call that 
the following work was written. But the time al- 
lowed by the Society was so short, that when the 
work was presented for examination, one of the 
most important chapters was left unfinished and en- 
tirely without the appendix. Notwithstanding, the 
examining committee decided the work to be the 
best presented, and awarded a small premium to the 
author. At the same time, the Society returned the 
several works presented to their authors, with the 
privilege of revising and completing the same and 
presenting them again, with such new competitors as 
might enter the field, at the end of the succeeding 
year. This work was accordingly completed and 
presented again ; but finding that it was the only 
one in the hands of the committee, it was withdrawn, 
the author not wishing to ask an award in a cours 
settlement. 

Much pains have been taken to adapt, the present 
work to the actual wants of the schools. Hence 
it begins with the elementary principles of Natural 
Science, and- proceeds on in such a way that every 
step is calculated to make the succeeding one more 
easy. 

The necessity of this will be apparent to every 



X INTRODUCTION. 

one acquainted with our schools ; for in them, prob- 
ably not one scholar in a hundred, who ought to 
study agriculture, would have a previous knowledge 
of chemistry and natural philosophy. And yet al- 
most every work published on the subject is written 
on the assumption that the reader is already a good 
chemical scholar. The only work which can be 
considered an exception to this remark, is Johnson's 
Catechism, which, though admirably adapted to the 
instruction of children, is really too brief and simple, 
to make a serious book of study in the hands of the 
older class of scholars in our schools. 

The object of all study is two-fold, viz : to store 
the mind with facts, and to discipline it to serious 
thought, reflection, and investigation. To accom- 
plish this we must be careful that our text-books on 
science are not too much diluted on the one hand, or 
too prolix and obscure on the other. 

The author of the present work has aimed at a 
judicious medium, always endeavoring to present a 
clear exposition of principles, rather than a multi- 
plication of simple facts ; being fully satisfied that if 
the learner really understands the object to be ac- 
complished, he will seldom fail to find a way to ac- 
complish it, suited to his circumstances. 

From the very complimentary opinions expressed 
by those who have examined the work in manuscript, 



INTRODUCTION. XI 

and who are every way competent to judge, the au- 
thor feels confident that it will be found well adapted 
to the present wants of the schools and the country. 

For the materials constituting much of this work, 
the author is indebted to the writings of Sinclair, 
Chaptel, Davy, Liebig, Dumas, Johnson, Dana, Jack- 
son, Gray, Gaylord, Hitchcock, the Geological Re- 
ports of this State, &c. &c. But frequent marginal 
references to authorities have purposely been omit- 
ted, as calculated rather to divert the attention of the 
student, than to facilitate the acquisition of knowl- 
edge. 

N. S. DAVIS 

New York , August 1st, 1847, 



SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER I. 



CHEMISTRY. 



Chemistry is thatscience which makes us acquaint- 
ed with the composition and properties of bodies, 
and the changes which take place between the par- 
ticles of matter at insensible distances from each 
other. 



AGRICULTURAL SCfENCE. 

Agricultural science is that department of the 
general science of chemistry which makes us acquaint- 
ed with the composition and properties of soils and 
vegetables, and everything connected with the for- 
mation of the first, and the growth, maturity and 
uses of the second. 



Sect. 1. Jlgents productive of Chemical Phenomena, 
or Changes in Matter. 

All chemical phenomena, or, in other words, all 
changes in the condition of matter, are the result of 
the influence of one or the other of the following 

What is Chemistry ? What is meant by Agricultural Science ? 
With what does Agricultural Science make us acquainted ? 

2 



14 CALORIC OR HEAT. 

agents, viz caloric or heat, light, electricity and 
attraction. These are called imponderable bodies, 
because they possess no appreciable weight. By 
some chemists, they are considered as properties 
essential to all bodies ; while by others, they are re- 
garded as separate substances, though too subtle to be 
recognized by the ordinary properties of other matter. 

CALORIC OR HEAT. 

Caloric is that principle or agent which gives the 
sensation of heat when applied to the hand or other 
sensible organ. Its great characteristic quality, is 
that of producing expansion in other bodies, by 
forcing their particles of matter farther from each 
other, and thereby increasing their bulk. It is by 
this power that caloric or heat converts ice into water, 
and water into vapor, or makes lead and iron melt. 
It is by this power of expanding other bodies, and 
thus enabling their particles to move more freely on 
each other, that it becomes an agent productive of 
chemical changes in matter. 

Caloric exists in two states — one is called latent, 
or combined caloric, and exists in union with the 
particles of matter, being neither indicated by the 
thermometer, nor sensible to the touch ; the other is 
called free caloric, and is indicated both by the sense 
of feeling, and the mercury in the thermometer. 

Another marked property of free caloric, is its ten- 
dency to maintain an equilibrium ; by which we 
mean its tendency to pervade all bodies equally. 

What agents produce chemical changes in matter? What are 
these agents called ? Why ? Do all chemists agree as to the na- 
ture of these agents ? What are the two prevalent opinions con- 
cerning them ? What is caloric ? What is the prominent char- 
acteristic quality of caloric ? Tn what manner does it expand 
bodies? In what way does it become an agent productive of 
chemical changes in matter ? In how many states does caloric, 
exist ? What is latent caloric ? What is free caloric ? 



ATTRACTION. 15 

Thus, if we place a cold body in the vicinity of several 
warmer ones, the caloric will be constantly commu- 
nicated from the warmer to the colder one, until 
they all become of precisely the same temperature. 
The influence of caloric or heat on vegetation, is 
very striking and important. This is seen not only 
by the changes of spring and autumn, but also by 
comparing the vegetation in warm or tropical regions 
with the colder parts of the earth. 

ATTRACTION. 

Attraction is the great antagonist force to caloric 
or heat ; for while the latter is constantly tending to 
force the particles of matter farther from each other, 
the former is as constantly tending to bring them 
together, so as to form solid and compound bodies. 

There are three kinds of attraction, viz : cohesion, 
attraction of gravitation, and chemical attraction or 
affinity. 

Cohesion. — Cohesion is that force by which par- 
ticles of matter of the same kind are held together, 
forming a continuous bod)\ It is this kind of attrac- 
tion which holds the different particles of a stone, or 
a piece of iron, or chalk, or wood together, in such 
a manner as to give it solidity and form. This kind 
of attraction takes place between the particles of 
matter of the same kind, and only when they are 
brought in contact with each other. 

Attraction of Gravitation. — This is that power 
which, acting on matter in masses, causes bodies 

What are the principal properties of free caloric ? Does caloric 
influence vegetation ? What seasons and parts of the earth strik- 
ingly illustrate this ? What is attraction ? What influence does it 
exert on matter ? How many kinds of attraction are there ? What 
is meant by cohesive attraction? Can you give some examples of 
cohesion ? What qualities does this kind of attraction impart to 
bodies ? Under what circumstances does cohesive attraction take 
placp ? What is meant by attraction of gravitation ? 



16 AFFINITY. 

placed at sensible distances from each other, to ap- 
proach or fall together if left free to move. It is this 
power which causes bodies elevated in the air to fall 
to the earth. The attraction between the earth 
and the elevated body is mutual, but the earth 
being much the larger, causes all things near its 
surface to move towards it, unless hindered by some 
intervening obstacle. 

It is the attraction of gravitation constantly exerted 
on all bodies on or near the earth's surface, which 
gives them what we call weight ; but as it acts on 
matter in masses, it seldom becomes productive of 
chemical changes ; and its full consideration belongs 
entirely to the natural philosopher. 

Chemical Attraction, or Affinity, is that power 
which causes the particles of matter of different kinds 
to unite with each other, to form compound bodies. 
It is this kind of attraction which is the active agent 
in the production of nearly all the changes in the 
composition of bodies, which take place either in the 
laboratory of the chemist or in the great laboratory 
of nature. Chemical attraction, or affinity, is of 
three kinds, viz : simple affinity, single elective 
affinity, and double elective affinity. 

Simple Affinity. — When two different particles of 
matter are presented to each other, as when we mix 
two substances held in solution by water, they com- 
bine to form a new substance. Thus if carbonic acid 
and lime are mixed, they unite and form carbonate 
of lime. This is called simple affinity. 

Single Elective Affinity. — When two substances 

What influence does it exert on bodies, and what quality does 
it impart to them ? Why is it not productive of chemical changes 
in matter? What is meant by chemical attraction or affinity? 
What influence does it exert on the composition of bodies ? How 
many kinds of affinity are there, and what are they called ? What 
is meant by simple affinity ? Can you give an example of this 
kind of affinity ? What is meant by single elective affinity ? 



AFFINITY. 



17 



are mixed together, one of which is already com- 
pound, and one of its ingredients leaves it to join 
with the other body, it is called single elective 
affinity. Thus, if carbonate of lime is mixed with 
sulphuric acid, the lime forsakes the carbonic acid, 
and unites with the sulphuric acid to form sulphate of 
lime, leaving the carbonic free or uncombined. 

Double Elective Affinity. — This takes place when 
two compound bodies are mixed together, and a 
mutual interchange of ingredients takes place. 
Thus if we bring in contact carbonate of lime and sul- 
phate of soda in solution, the lime elects or unites 
with the sulphuric acid, while the soda goes to the 
carbonic ; and we obtain as a result, carbonate of soda 
and sulphate of lime. Thus making a double elec- 
tion or affinity. 

This will be more readily understood by the fol- 
lowing diagram : — 



Carbonate of Soda. 



Carbonate Carbonic acid. .Sulphuric acid. 



of 
Lime. 



Lime. 



• Soda. 



I. 



Sulphate 
of 



Soda. 



Sulphate of Lime. 



J 



The original compounds are placed on the outside 
of the brackets. The dotted lines indicate the in- 
terchange of ingredients ; and the names of the new 
compounds are placed one above and the other below 
the horizontal lines. 

Hence we see, that affinity is not only the 
agent, or power, which causes the particles of matter 
of different kinds to unite, thereby forming com- 
pounds ; but it may also be made our most powerful 



Give an example. What is meant by double elective affinity ? 
Give an example and explain the diagram. 



18 LIGHT. 

agent in effecting decompositions. For this purpose 
we have only to present to a compound body which 
we wish to decompose, another substance having a 
stronger affinity for some of the ingredients of the 
compound, than the others with which they are 
united. We have already given an example of this, 
in the case of single elective affinity. Another and 
more familiar one is that of the common sodapowders. 
There tartaric acid is added to a solution of carbo- 
nate of soda, which, by its superior affinity for the 
soda, it decomposes ; combining with the soda and 
setting the carbonic acid free, which rising rapidly 
through the solution in the form of gas, causes the 
effervescence. This agent or power is capable of ex- 
tensive application in agriculture, in all its depart- 
ments ; and especially in the preparation of manures, 
as we shall hereafter see. 

LIGHT. 

Light is that substance, power or property, which 
is being continually emitted from the sun, and from 
almost all burning bodies. Chemically considered, 
light is composed of, 1st, colors ; 2d, caloric or heat ; 
3d, chemical rays. These different parts are easily 
shown by passing a ray of light through a simple 
prism. The warming influence of the sun is entirely 
owing to the caloric that accompanies the light 
which it emits. 

The powerful influence which light exerts over 
the growth of vegetables, is seen by comparing the 
vegetables grown in dark cellars, with those of the 

How can affinity be made the active agent in effecting decom- 
positions ? Can you explain the changes that take place in a 
glass of soda water ? What is light ? What is an ordinary ray 
of light composed of? How can the different parts be shown ? 
To what is the warming influence of the sun owing ? What is 
the difference between vegetables grown in the light, and those 
in the dark ? 



ELECTRICITY. 19 

same kind in the open light of day. The former are 
pale, sickly and insipid, while the latter are green, 
rank, healthy and pungent. 

ELECTRICITY. 

Electricity is an extremely subtle agent, which 
pervades all matter, and moves with inconceivable 
velocity. It is developed or made sensible to us in 
various ways — 1st, by friction, as when we rub a 
piece of glass or amber with a piece of silk, which is 
the ordinary mode ; 2d, by chemical action, as when 
two different metals are immersed in a very dilute 
acid, which is called voltaic electricity or galvanism. 
It is the same agent, circulating around a bar of iron 
at right angles with the bar, which develops the 
phenomena of magnetism. 

Electricity exists in two states — the one called 
positive and the other negative. One theory supposes 
that there are two fluids, one positive and the other 
negative. Another supposes that positive and neg- 
ative are merely relative terms; the positive signi- 
fying that a body is charged with more than its 
natural quantity of electricity, and the negative less. 
Be this as it may, the fact is certain that whenever 
two bodies are brought near each other, both of 
which are charged with either positive or negative 
electricity, they repel each other; but if one is 
charged with positive and the other with negative 
electricity, they will mutually attract each other. 

Electricity, like caloric, constantly seeks to main- 
tain an equilibrium throughout all nature. Hence, 

What is electricity ? How can electricity be excited ? What 
is the connection between electricity and magnetism ? In how 
many states does electricity exist ? What are they called ? 
How are these two states explained ? When do bodies attract, 
and when repel each other ? In what respect is electricity like 
caloric ? 



20 CLASSIFICATION OF BODIES. 

whenever it becomes accumulated in excess in any 
one point, as in the clouds for example, if there is a 
metallic rod, or other good conductor, elevated from 
the earth to the vicinity of the clouds, the excess 
passes silently down the rod to the earth ; but if 
there is no such conductor, it breaks through the air 
with the noise of thunder, and emits a vivid flash of 
light, which we call lightning. 

Some chemists have attempted to explain the 
whole phenomena of chemical affinity and combi- 
nations, on the principle of electrical attraction and 
repulsion ; and, certainly, not without some show of 
plausibility, as we shall learn more fully when we 
come to speak of the effects of electricity on vegeta- 
tion. 

Sect. 2. Classification of Bodies. 

All bodies in nature are divided into two classes, 
viz : simple or elementary, and compound. A sim- 
ple body is one which has not yet been separated into 
two or more ingredients. A compound body is one 
made up of two or more simple bodies. There are 
at present known only fifty-five separate substances, 
called simple or elementary bodies. By the various 
combinations of these, all the various substances in 
nature are formed, whether organized or inorganic ; 
whether animal, vegetable, or mineral. 

Thirteen of these are called non-metallic, viz : 
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, phos- 
phorus, chlorine, iodine, bromine, fluorine, boron, 

What takes place when it becomes accumulated in excess on 
one point? Is electricity radiated like caloric, or only conducted 
along those bodies called conductors ? Are electricity and light- 
ning the same ? How are all bodies divided ? What is a simple 
body ? What is a compound body ? How many simple bodies 
are known to chemists ? Are all vegetable, animal, and inorganic 
substances made up of combinations of these ? How are simple 
bodies divided ? Can you name the non-metallic ? • 



CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 21 

silicon and selenium. The remaining forty-two are 
called metals, viz: arsenic, antimony, aluminum, 
barium, bismuth, copper, cerium, cadmium, cal- 
cium, cobalt, chromium, gold, glucinum, iron, 
iridium, lithium, lanthanum, lead, molybdanum, 
mercury, magnesium, manganese, nickel, osmium, 
platinum, potassium, palladium, rhodium, sodium, 
strontium, silver, tellurium,titanium, thorium, tung- 
sten, tin, tantalum, uranium, vanadium, yttrium, 
zirconium, zinc. 

Of these, only oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitro- 
gen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine and silicon, of 
the non-metallic ; and aluminum, calcium, iron, 
magnesium, manganese, potassium, sodium, of the 
metallic, are of any consequence in regard to prac- 
tical agriculture. These are again divided, in refer- 
ence to agriculture, into organic and inorganic ele- 
ments. The first four, viz : oxygen, hydrogen, 
carbon and nitrogen, being found in all vegetable 
and animal substances, are called organic, while all 
the rest are termed inorganic elements. 

In this work, we shall confine ourselves to such a 
description of these, and their compounds, as is ne- 
cessary to understand the following chapters. Be- 
fore doing this, however, it is necessary to give some 
explanation of chemical terms. 

Sect. 3. Chemical Nomenclature, or System of 
Naming. 

The present system of naming substances, invent- 
ed by Lavoisier, has done more to facilitate the 
study of chemistry than any other one thing. It is so 

Can you name those of both classes which are particularly 
interesting- to the agriculturist ? How are these divided in 
reference to agriculture ? Which are called organic, and why ? 
What is the system of naming substances called ? Who invent- 
ed the chemical nomenclature ? 
2* 



22 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 

arranged that the name of every compound body is 
made, as far as possible, to indicate its composition. 
Thus oxygen, chlorine, sulphur, &c, combine with 
the metals, and form substances which are called 
oxides, chlorides, sulphurets — as oxide of iron, 
chloride of iron, or sulphuret of lead. 

But oxygen or chlorine may unite with the same 
metal in mote than one proportion, forming one, 
two, three or more compounds. These are distin- 
guished from each other by prefixing the Greek 
numerals, prot, deut, trit and per : thus, there may 
be a prot-oxide, deut-oxide, trit-oxide and per-oxide 
of iron ; the first signifying the lowest quantity of 
oxygen, and the last the highest. And the same of 
the proto-chlorides, deuto-chlorides, proto-sulphuret, 
&c. 

But perhaps no names appear more frequently in 
chemistry than acids, alkalies, salts and base. By 
acid, we mean any substance which will change the 
vegetable colors to red, and unite with an alkali, 
oxide, or other base, to form a neutral compound 
possessing properties essentially different from either 
of the ingredients which enter into its composition, 
and which compound is called a salt. 

Most of the acids are formed by the combination 
of oxygen with some other simple body, as carbon, 
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. And tbey all 
take their name from the substance with which the 
oxygen combines. Thus we have carbonic, nitric, 
sulphuric, phosphoric acids, &c. But oxygen com- 



On what principle is it formed ? When oxygen, chlorine, or 
sulphur combines with the metals, what are the compounds 
called ? If these substances combine with any given metal in 
more than one propoetion, how are the compounds distinguished 
from each other ? Which prefix indicates the highest and which 
the lowest degree of oxidation, &c. ? What names appear very 
often in chemistry ? What is an acid ? How are most acids 
formed ? What determines the name of each ? 



CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 23 

bines with some substances in more than one propor- 
tion, forming two, three or four different compounds 
possessing acid properties. These are distinguished 
by (he terminations ous and ic, and the prefix hypo. 
Thus the two acid compounds of phosphorus and 
oxygen are called phosphorous and phosphoric acids; 
the first containing the least and the last the most 
oxygen. Again, we have four acid compounds of 
nitrogen and oxygen, viz : the hypo-nitrous, the 
nitrous, the hypo-nitric, and the nitric acids. 

Chlorine also combines with some substances, 
forming acid compounds. Thus chlorine and hy- 
drogen unite and form the chloro-hydroic acid, a 
compound long well known by (he common name 
of muriatic acid. But these compounds are distin- 
guished by the same terminal letters as when oxy- 
gen enters into their composition. 

The term alkali is applied to those compound sub- 
stances which possess the property of changing the 
vegetable blue colors to green, and uniting with 
acids to form neutral compounds, termed salts. The 
principal alkalies are potassa, or potash, soda, am- 
monia, and lime. This last, however, together with 
magnesia and manganese, are generally called al- 
kaline earths. But as we have acids terminating in 
ous and ic, so the neutral compounds, or salts, which 
they form with alkalies or oxides, terminate in ite 

Does oxygen combine with other substances in more than one 
proportion to form acids ? How are they distinguished from each 
other ? How many acid compounds of oxygen and nitrogen are 
there ? How are they distinguished from each other ? Let the 
pupil write them on the black-board, and point out the relative 
proportion of oxygen in each. Does chlorine ever form acid 
compounds with other bodies ? How are they distinguished ? 
What is the composition and proper name of muriatic acid ? 
What is meant by an alkali ? Can you name the principal alka- 
lies ? What i9 the compound formed by the union of an acid 
with an alkali called ? How do you distinguish a salt formed by 
an acid terminating in ous, from one in ic 1 



24 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS. 

and ate. Thus sulphurous acid and soda form sul- 
phite of soda, and sulphuric acid and soda form sul- 
phate of soda. And so of all the other similar com- 
pounds with acids. 

Sometimes the same acid combines with the same 
base, in more than one proportion. These are dis- 
tinguished by prefixing the term bi to the second 
compound ; as the carbonate and bi-carbonate of 
soda, &c. The word base is used in a general sense, 
to signify any alkali, earth, or metallic oxide which 
is capable of combining with an acid. And a salt 
is any neutral compound of an acid with a base. 
Thus carbonate of soda is a salty the base of which 
is soda. 

Sect. 4. Laws of Chemical Combinations. 

1st. The composition of every compound substance 
is fixed and invariable. The ingredients are not 
only always the same, but they are always combined 
in the same relative proportion. Thus oxygen and 
hydrogen combine in the proportion of one of hy- 
drogen, by weight, to eight of oxygen, to form water; 
and in no other proportion can water be formed. 
The addition of one proportion more of oxygen, 
makes a liquid of a highly corrosive and poisonous 
nature. 

2d. The relative quantities in which bodies unite, 
may be expressed in proportional numbers. Thus 
eight parts of oxygen combine with fourteen of ni- 
trogen, sixteen of sulphur, thirty-six of chlorine, and 
six of carbon. Not only do these various substances 

When the same acid combines with the same base in more 
than one proportion, how arc the compounds distinguished ? 
Write an example. What is a base ? What is the first law of 
chemical combinations ? What is the composition of water ? 
Do the ingredients or elements of any given compound always 
unite in the same relative proportion ? What is the second law 
of combinations ? Give an example. 



LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS. 25 

hold this relative proportion when combined with 
oxygen, but they remain the same when they com- 
bine with any other body, or with each other. The 
same law applies to compound bodies. Thus water 
is composed of oxygen 8 and hydrogen 1, therefore 
its combining number for all substances is 9. Sul- 
phuric acid is composed of one proportion of sulphur 
16, and three proportions of oxygen 24, hence its 
combining number is 40. And so in all other com- 
pounds. 

3d. When one body A combines with another 
body B, for example, in more than one proportion, 
the quantities of A in the second, third, and fourth 
compounds, will be simple multiples of the first by 
a whole number. Thus nitrogen combines with ox- 
ygen in the ratio of one proportion 14, to 8, 16, 24 
and 32 of oxygen. There are a few substances 
which apparently form an exception to this rule, 
but they are immaterial to our present purpose. 

4th. Gases or airs unite with each other by volume, 
in the simple ratio of 1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3, &c. 
Thus 1 cubic inch of oxygen will combine with 2 
cubic inches of hydrogen to form water, but never 1 
cubic inch to 1|. 

5th. The respective quantities of any number of 
alkaline, earthy, or metallic bases, required to sat- 
urate a given quantity of any acid, are always in the 
same ratio to each other, to whatsoever acid they 
are applied. Thus if two parts of soda will saturate 
as much sulphuric acid as three parts of potash, their 
power of saturating every other acid will be in the 
same ratio to each other. 



Do the several bodies preserve the same relative proportion 
towards each other when combining with all other bodies ? Does 
this law also apply to compound bodies ? What is the third law 
of combinations ? Give an example. Are there any apparent 
exceptions to this rule ? What is the law of combination in re- 
gard to gases ? What is the fifth law of combinations ? 



26 ORGANIC ELEMENTS. 

It will be seen by the foregoing- rules, that in sci- 
ence, we use the words combine and combination in a 
strict and specific manner, which should be distin- 
guished from simple mixture. If we mix ever so in- 
timately sand and saw-dust, salt and water, or flour 
and water, no particular change takes place in the 
properties of the mixed substances ; and they may 
be easily separated again. On the other hand, when 
two substances combine, their particles enter into a 
new arrangement, and a new substance is formed 
with properties different from either of its ingredi- 
ents. Simple mixtures may be made in any propor- 
tions, but all combinations are subject to the laws 
which we have stated. 

Again we have used the word saturate. When 
any acid or fluid has united with, or dissolved, as 
much of another substance as it can be made to, it is 
said to be saturated. Thus water is saturated with 
common salt by adding as much as it will dissolve, 
&c. 



CHAPTER II. 



ORGANIC ELEMENTS 



All substances in nature exist in the state of solids, 
liquids, or gases. The four simple substances be- 
longing to this class, viz : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon 
and nitrogen, constitute from 90 to 98 per cent, of 
the substance of all living plants ; as well as the en- 
tire bulk of the air and water which belong to our 

What is meant by a combination in chemistry ? What is the 
difference between a combination and a mixture ? Give an ex- 
ample of each. What is meant by the word saturate 1 In what 
state do all the substances in nature exist ? What simple sub- 
stances are called organic elements ? Do these elements enter 
iui.0 the composition of all living plants ? 



ORGANIC ELEMENTS. 27 

earth. Oxygen also exists in large quantities in com- 
bination with the mineral substances, which make up 
the solid crust of the earth ; and the immense beds 
of coal, graphite, &c, are nearly pure carbon. 

Oxygen. — This substance, when pure, is a color- 
less, tasteless, inodorous gas ; highly elastic; a little 
heavier than atmospheric air ; is very sparingly ab- 
sorbed by water ; is attracted to the positive pole of 
the galvanic battery, and hence is itself an electro- 
negative, and a powerful supporter of combustion 
and animal life. It is the substance which enters 
into combination with combustible matter, with such 
rapidity as to evolve light and heat, as exhibited in 
all our fires ; and without its presence neither ani- 
mal nor vegetable matter can either grow or maintain 
its vitality. It exists abundantly in nature, forming 
one-fifth of the atmosphere, and eight-ninths of the 
weight of all the water on the globe ; besides being 
an ingredient in all animal and vegetable substances, 
as well as many inorganic solids. 

Oxygen possesses, perhaps, a more extensive 
range of affinities than any other substance ; forming, 
with other simple elements, oxides, alkalies and 
acids. It is readily obtained in its gaseous form, by 
heating to redness the per-oxide of lead (red lead) 
or manganese (black oxide of) in an iron retort or 
gun barrel, and collecting the gas in a glass jar or 
receiver over water, in the same manner as hydro- 
gen. Fine iron wire maybe burned in this gas when 
pure, as readily as paper in the open air. And when 
mixed with twice its bulk of hydrogen gas, it ex- 

How large a proportion of all plants consists of organic ele- 
ments ? Where else are they found besides in vegetables ? 
What is oxygen ? What are its prominent qualities ? Is it 
electro-negative or positive ? Does it take part in ordinary com- 
bustion ? What is its influence on animal and vegetable life ? 
In what substances is oxygen found abundantly ; and in what 
proportion ? What are its compounds with other simple sub- 
stances called ? How can oxygen be obtained in a separate 
state ? 



28 



ORGANIC ELEMENTS. 



plodes violently on the application of a lighted taper 
or an electric spark. Its combining number for all 
other substances is 8, and its representative letter 0. 

Hydrogen. — This, like the preceding, is a highly 
elastic, colorless, tasteless gas ; very sparingly ab- 
sorbed by water ; will not support combustion or 
animal life ; but readily takes fire itself, when 
brought in contact with a lighted taper in the open 
air, and burns with a pale, blue flame ; is attracted 
to the negative pole of the galvanic battery, and 
hence termed an electro-positive body. It is regard- 
ed as the lightest substance known, being sixteen 
times lighter than oxygen, and 200,000 times lighter 
than mercury. 

Hydrogen is found in small quantities in most 
liquids, in nearly all vegetable and animal substances, 
but chiefly in water, of which it forms one-ninth 
part by weight. It is easily obtained by adding 
dilute sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) to zinc or iron 
filings in a glass retort, and collecting the gas over 
water, as illustrated by the accompanying figure. 




No lamp, however, or other heat is required in the 



How can it be made explosive ? What is its combining num- 
ber, and its symbolical letter ? What is hydrogen ? Will it 
support combustion and animal life ? Will it burn, and if so, 
what is the appearance of its flame ? Why is it called electro- 
positive ? What is the lightest substance known ? How much 
lighter is it than oxygen and mercury ? In what substance is 
hydrogen most abundant ? How is hydrogen obtained ? 



ORGANIC ELEMENTS. 29 

process. In this process, the oxygen of the water in 
the dilute acid goes to the zinc or iron, while the 
hydrogen is set free, or left to assume its gaseous 
state. It is this gas which is used to fill balloons. 
Its combining number is 1, and its symbol, or repre- 
sentative letter, H. 

Nitrogen. — Nitrogen is also a gas, which cannot 
be distinguished from the two preceding by its sensi- 
ble qualities. Its properties seem to be mostly of a 
negative character ; being neither a combustible, 
nor a supporter of combustion or animal life ; and 
apparently merely a diluent of oxygen in the atmo- 
sphere. It exists abundantly in animal substances, 
and forms four-fifths of the bulk of the atmosphere. 
It exerts an important influence over the growth of 
vegetables, and readily enters into combination with 
some other substances, forming an active and ener- 
getic class of compounds. It also belongs to the class 
of electro-positive bodies. Its combining number is 
14, and its symbolical letter, N. 

Carbon. — This substance enters more largely into 
the composition of vegetable substances than any 
other simple body in nature, forming from 20 to 55 
per cent, of their bulk. The purest form of carbon 
is the diamond. The next is common charcoal, the 
properties of which are too well known to need par- 
ticular description. 

One of the most important properties of charcoal 

What changes take place in this process ? What is hydrogen 
gas used for ? What is its combining number and symbolical 
letter ? What is nitrogen ? What is there peculiar in its prop- 
erties ? In what is it found most abundant ? Does it exert any 
influence on the growth of vegetables ? Is it attracted to the 
negative or positive pole of the galvanic battery ? What is its 
combining number and symbolical letter ? Is carbon a solid or 
liquid ? In what form is it most pure ? W T hat is its most com- 
mon form ? How large a proportion of the bulk of vegetables 
does carbon form ? 



30 ORGANIC ELEMENTS. 

to the agriculturist, is its power of absorbing gases. 
Thus, freshly burned charcoal from wood will ab- 
sorb 95 times its own bulk of ammoniacal gas ; 55 
times of sulphuretted hydrogen, and 9 times of oxy- 
gen. 

The combining number of carbon is 6, and its 
symbolical letter, C. It has a strong affinity for 
oxygen, with which it combines to form the well- 
known and widely diffused gas, called carbonic acid 
gas, or fixed air, which is so frequently found in 
caves, wells, &c. ; and which is absorbed in large 
quantities by water, to which it gives a lively, spark- 
ling appearance, and sour taste. It is composed of 
carbon 6 parts, and oxygen 16, making its combin- 
ing number 22. 

This acid gas always exists in the atmosphere in 
small quantities, and is the chief source from which 
plants derive their carbon. It may be easily ob- 
tained for examination by adding dilute muriatic 
acid to the common carbonate of lime (chalk or 
marble) in a glass flask, and collecting the liberated 
gas in a receiver inverted over mercury. 

It is a fact worthy of notice, that the four elemen- 
tary substances above described not only make up 
from 90 to 98 per cent, of the entire bulk of vege- 
tables, but they also constitute a large share of the 
inorganic materials of our globe. They constitute 
the entire bulk of the air and water, while the oxy- 
gen and carbon also form no inconsiderable portion 
of the more solid crust of the earth. Hence, they 

What remarkable property does carbon, in the form of char- 
coal, possess ? How much ammoniacal gas will it absorb ? Has 
carbon any affinity for oxygen ? In what proportion does car- 
bon and oxygen unite ? In what state does the compound ex- 
ist, and what is it called ? In what places is it often found ? 
What qualities does it impart to water ? From what source do 
plants obtain their carbon ? How may carbonic acid gas be ob- 
tained ? 



INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 31 

are always present in sufficient abundance for all 
the purposes of vegetation ; their supply being, in- 
deed, inexhaustible. 



INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 

The inorganic elements of vegetables, though 
more numerous than the organic, nevertheless con- 
stitute but little more than two per cent, of their 
bulk. They are chlorine, phosphorus, silicon, alu- 
minum, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, 
manganese and iron. 

But though these substances form so small a por- 
tion of the living plant, they are still equally impor- 
tant and essential to its growth and full maturity. 
And as they are more limited in quantity, and less 
universally diffused over the surface of the earth 
than the organic elements, their thorough study is 
even more important to the agriculturist. Hence, 
we shall give a short description of each, that the 
nature of their compounds, and the manner in 
which they are made to serve as nourishment for 
plants, may be more readily understood. 

Chlorine. — Chlorine is a gas of a yellowish green 
color, disagreeable odor, astringent taste, and very 
suffocating and poisonous when inhaled into the 
lungs. It is twice as heavy as atmospheric air — 
supports combustion feebly — is absorbed by cold 
water — destroys animal and vegetable colors — and 
becomes liquid under a strong pressure. 

Are the four organic elements always present in quantities 
sufficient for the purposes of vegetation ? Can you name the in- 
organic elements of vegetables ? How large a portion of the bulk 
of vegetables do they generally form ? Are they always essential 
to the full maturity of vegetables ? Are they as universally and 
abundantly diffused over the earth as the organic elements? What 
are the properties of chlorine ? What effect does it have on vege- 
table colors ? 



32 INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 

This gas enters into combination with various 
substances, forming compounds, among the most 
useful of which is its union with sodium in the form 
of common salt, and with hydrogen in the form of 
muriatic acid. The common salt exists abundantly 
in nature, and forms a very useful manure for some 
soils, while its value for stock and culinary purposes 
is too well known to need mention. 

Silicon. — Silicon is a simple, solid substance, the 
properties of which, in its separate state, are imper- 
fectly known. By some it is ranked with the met- 
als. When combined with oxygen, it forms the 
well-known substance called silica, or silex, which 
enters largely into the composition of many rocks, 
sand, &c. ; and hence is an ingredient in most soils. 
It also enters into the composition of many vegeta- 
ble substances, such as the various grasses, grains, 
&c. Quartz, or rock crystals, are also nearly pure 
silex. 

This substance is an essential ingredient in fertile 
soils, and is used extensively in the manufacture of 
glass. Silica also acts the part of an acid, and com- 
bines with potassa, soda, lime, alumina and mag- 
nesia. These compounds are called silicates, and 
are mostly insoluble in water. These silicates and 
silex constitute from 70 to 90 per cent, of most 
soils. 

Aluminum. — In its pure state aluminum is a gray, 
slightly cohesive powder, of a shining metallic lus- 

Does it readily enter into combination with other substances ? 
What are its most useful compounds ? Is the chloride of sodium 
a common salt found ready formed in nature ? Tn what way is 
this particularly useful to the farmer ? What is silicon ? What 
is the substance formed by its union with oxygen called ? Does 
silex enter into the composition of vegetables ? In what form is 
it found most pure ? For what is it extensively used ? Does it 
ever act as an acid ? How large a proportion of most soils is 
formed of silica and its compounds ? What is aluminum ? Can 
you describe it ? 



INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 33 

tre, insoluble in water, and having a strong- attrac- 
tion for oxygen, with which it combines to form 
alumina, an ingredient in the well-known substance 
called alum. Alumina also forms the basis of all 
clays, and is an ingredient in the argillaceous rocks, 
as well as the feldspar, which enters into the compo- 
sition of both the primitive and secondary forma- 
tions. Alumina is composed of 27*4 parts of alu- 
minum and 24 parts of oxygen. 

Next to silica, alumina is the most abundant in- 
gredient in the rocks and soils of the globe. It is 
chiefly derived from the decomposition of the feld- 
spathic minerals, or argillaceous rocks. Combined 
with a small proportion of silica, or silicic acid, it 
forms common clay, and gives to the soil its adhe- 
sive qualities. Alumina also possesses the property 
of absorbing considerable quantities of water and 
some of the gases, particularly the ammoniacal gas, 
and of retaining them in the soil for the use of 
plants. 

Phosphorus. — In its pure state, phosphorus is a 
soft, friable solid, having a strong attraction for oxy- 
gen, with which^it combines rapidly ; emitting dense 
white fumes, which are rapidly absorbed by water. 
This compound of phosphorus and oxygen is in- 
tensely sour, and is called phosphoric acid. This 
acid, when united with lime, soda, ammonia, &c, 
enters into the composition of many vegetables, 
and is hence of much importance to the agricul- 
turist. 

_~ What does it form when combined with oxygen ? In what 
kind of rocks and soils is it most abundant ? Of what is alu- 
mina composed, and what is the proportion of its ingredients ? 
From what source is it principally derived ? What qualities 
does it impart to the soil ? With what is it generally combined 
when in the form of common clay ? What substances will it 
absorb ? Can you give a description of phosphorus and its quali- 
ties ? "What does it form when combined with oxygen? Does 
phosphoric acid enter into the composition of vegetables ? 



34 INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 

Phosphate of lime forms a large share of the solid 
part of bones, from which the pure 'phosphorus is 
principally obtained. It is to this ingredient that 
bones owe their value as a manure. This compound 
of phosphoric acid and lime, although not an abun- 
dant product in nature, has been discovered in the 
rocks of two or three localities in this State, in 
quantities sufficient to render it valuable as a 
manure. 

Calcium. — This is a white, metallic substance, 
and when combined with oxygen, exists abundantly 
in nature, forming the common lime or quick-lime 
of the kiln. It is this combination of calcium and 
oxygen which forms the basis of all the limestone 
rocks, shells, plaster of paris, marble, &c. It is 
strongly alkaline in its properties, readily combining 
with acids, and forming some of the most abundant 
products in nature. 

Its union with carbonic acid forms the well-known 
carbonate of lime, (common limestone,) which 
alone makes up whole ranges of mountains ; while 
with the sulphuric acid it forms the sulphate of lime, 
or gypsum, or plaster of paris, as it is variously 
called; which is scarcely less abundant. Though 
lime and its combinations are thus abundant, it is 
found in the soil in very small quantities only. But 
it exerts an important influence on vegetation, and 
enters into the composition of many plants. 

Magnesium. — This substance much resembles 

What constitutes the solid part of bones ? What renders bones 
valuable as a manure ? Is phosphate of lime found native in the 
rocks of this State ? What is calcium ? What is the composition 
of common, or quick-lime ? What forms the basis of limestone 
rocks, shells, &c. ? Is quick-lime an alkali or an acid ? With 
what is it combined in common limestone ? With what in gyp- 
sum or plaster of paris ? What is the proper name of gypsum ? 
Are these compounds of lime abundant in nature ? Are they 
abundant in most soils ? Do they exert any influence on vegeta- 
tion ? What, does magnesium resemble ? 



INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 35 

calcium, both in its properties and its influence on 
vegetation. It combines with oxygen to form an 
alkali, called magnesia. It exists in some rocks 
and soils, but only in small quantities. 

Manganese. — Manganese is of but little impor- 
tance to the agriculturist. In combination with 
oxygen, however, it forms an alkali, which is cal- 
culated to neutralize any acids with which it comes 
in contact; and might thereby prove beneficial to 
some soils. It exists in nature, combined with oxy- 
gen, in black, earthy masses, which are unaffected 
by either air or moisture. 

Potassium. — This is a soft metallic substance, pos- 
sessing so strong an attraction for oxygen, that when 
brought in contact with water, it decomposes it, and 
unites with its oxygen so rapidly as to produce com- 
bustion. Hence a particle of it placed on the wick 
of a candle or taper, and touched with a piece of 
ice, will take fire. Thus, united with oxygen, po- 
tassium forms the well-known caustic alkali, called 
potash or potassa. 

Potash also unites readily with carbonic acid, 
forming a carbonate and bi-carbonate of potash, 
well known as the common pearlash and salceratus, 
so much used for culinary purposes. It enters as a 
necessary ingredient into the composition of a great 
variety of vegetable substances, and is found widely 
diffused throughout nature. It is found in the great- 
est abundance in the granite, gneiss and mica rocks, 
and the soils derived therefrom, together with the 



What does it form with oxygen ? Does it exist in soils, rocks, 
&c. ? Is manganese of much importance to the agriculturist ? 
What is potassium ? What takes place when water or ice is 
brought, in contact with potassium ? What is formed by the 
union of potassium and oxygen ? Does potash unite with car- 
bonic acid in more than one proportion ? What are the com- 
pounds called ? Is it of any importance in the growth of vege- 
tables ? In what kind of rooks is it found most abundant ? 



36 INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 

argillaceous or clayey formations. Potash also 
forms an abundant ingredient in the ashes of wood. 

Sodium, — Sodium is also a metallic substance, 
much resembling potassium in its appearance and 
properties. It possesses a strong attraction for oxygen, 
and unites with it to form soda ; which is the basis 
of that well-known alkaline carbonate used for 
making soda powders. 

Like potash, soda combines with carbonic acid in 
two proportions, forming a carbonate and bi-carbo- 
nate of soda. It exists in small quantities in albite, 
mica and basaltic or volcanic formations, and abun- 
dantly in chloride of sodium, or common salt. It 
enters into the composition of many vegetables, 
though it is far less important in that respect than 
potash, which it resembles in its action on soils and 
vegetation. 

Iron. — Iron is a metal too well known to need 
description here. It enters in some form into the 
composition of almost every kind of soil; and, in- 
deed, into the composition of almost all vegetable 
and animal substances. In the soil, it is generally 
found in combination with oxygen, forming an ox- 
ide or common iron rust. But sometimes the oxide 
of iron is combined with an acid, forming a sulphate 
or carbonate of iron. The quantity of iron in dif- 
ferent soils varies from 1 to 12 or 15 per cent. 

Having now briefly presented the general agents 
or powers which are productive of chemical changes 



In what other substances does it exist ? What does sodium 
resemble ? For what has it a strong attraction ? What is its 
compound with oxygen called ? In what substances is it found 
in nature ? Does soda enter into the composition of vegetables ? 
What does it resemble in its action on vegetation ? What is 
iron ? Is it often found in the soil ? Is it found in vegetable 
and animal substances ? With what substances is it found in 
combination in the soil ? How large a quantity of iron is usually 
found in the soil ? 



FORMATION OF SOILS. 37 

in matter ; the laws which govern chemical com- 
binations ; together with a short description of those 
simple or elementary substances which, in their 
various forms of combination, not only make up 
the mass of our globe, but also the entire bulk 
of organized vegetable matter, we proceed in the 
following pages to consider — 1st, the formation, 
classification and composition of soils ; 2d, the com- 
position of vegetables, and the sources from which 
their ingredients are derived ; 3d, the means pos- 
sessed by man for fertilizing the soil, and adapting 
it to the growth of the various crops which he may 
desire ; 4th, the preparation of manures, their com- 
position and adaptation to particular soils ; 5th, the 
best modes of analyzing vegetable substances, 
soils, &c, together with tables showing the compo- 
sition of the various grains, grasses, root crops and 
soils, according to the most accurate analysis ; 6th, 
practical agriculture and horticulture, including the 
growth of grains, roots, grasses, &c. 



CHAPTER III. 

Sect. 1. Formation of Soils. 

The entire crust of our globe is composed of rocks, 
of various forms, composition, and properties. 1 he 
mixture of stones, clay, loam, sand, &c, covering 
the surface of these rocks to a greater or less depth, 
is called soil. The principal ingredients in the soil 

Of what is the entire crust of the globe composed ? What is 
meant by soil ? What relation exists between the recks and the 
soil? 

3 



38 FORMATION OF SOILS. 

generally correspond with those of the rocks be- 
neath, and hence geologists and chemists have 
almost unanimously represented the former as 
having been derived from the latter, by the gradual 
disintegrating or crumbling influence of air, water, 
vegetable substances, &c. 

Nearly all rocks contain more or less of the me- 
tallic substances which we have described, particu- 
larly iron and manganese. These possessing a 
strong attraction for the oxygen of the air, readily 
enter into combination with it, wherever they come 
in contact, forming oxides which crumble to pieces. 
Or if, as is often the case, the iron is previously 
combined with sulphur, forming pyrites, or sulphu- 
ret of iron, then oxygen converts the two into sul- 
phate of iron or copperas ; which, being soluble in 
water, is dissolved and brought in contact with 
other ingredients, such as potash and lime, when 
still other combinations are formed, until the whole 
rocky mass falls to pieces. 

In many of these changes, the volume of the 
new compound is increased, and the rock thereby 
split so as to admit water into the crevices ; the 
freezing of which opens the seams still wider, and 
hastens the dissolution. And no sooner do the air 
and water thus commence the work, than various 
vegetable substances, such as lichens, mosses, &c, 
spring into existence, and extend their roots into the 
crevices of the rocks — not only keeping them moist, 
but, with the rocks and moisture, forming a galvanic 

What agents are active in the formation of soil from rocks ? 
What metallic substances are often found in rocks ? What 
changes take place when they are exposed to the atmosphere ? 
What changes occur when sulphur enters into the composition 
of the rocky mass ? What is the combined influence of water 
and frost ? What kind of vegetables spring into existence first 
in new or forming soils ? What further influence do these exert 
on the rocks ? 



FORMATION OF SOILS. 39 

apparatus of great decomposing or disintegrating 
power. 

Again, these vegetable substances, in a state of 
decay, form various acids ; which, in their turn, act 
still further in destroying- the composition of rocks 
and stones. By the combined influence of all these 
agents, constantly acting from century to century, 
the solid portions of our earth are dissolved, and 
their rich storehouse of minerals gradually unlocked 
to nourish the vegetable creation, and beautify the 
earth. 

That these agents do possess the power here as- 
cribed to them, is evident from the fact, that places 
are found in some of the Eastern States of this Union, 
where the gneiss rocks have been penetrated to the 
depth of fifteen feet. In common language the 
rock is said to rot. But the soil does not always re- 
main at the place where it is formed, for the winds 
and moving waters are constantly changing its loca- 
tion. 

From the falling rain, and the rills that trickle 
down the sides of the mountains, carrying the sol- 
uble materials, sand and gravel with them to the 
mighty rivers, which, in their course, break through 
rocks and hills, and precipitate their substance into 
the valleys, and the resistless, sweeping, eddying 
flood, which sometimes sweeps over whole coun- 
tries — all have a powerful agency in transferring 
the ingredients of soils from the place of their for- 
mation, on the hills and mountains, to other and 
sometimes distant places in the valleys below. It is 
from such causes that we often find the composition 
of soils, particularly those of alluvial origin, (such 

What substances are formed by the decay of these vegetables ? 
What has been the result of the action of all these agents during 
past centuries ? What evidence have you of their action ? 
Docs the soil always remain at the place where it is formed ? 
What agents are capable of removing it ? 



40 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 

as have been deposited from water,) very different 
from that of the rocky masses which lie beneath 
them. And it is owing- to the same causes that we 
find the soil varying in depth, from a few inches, or 
none at all, on the sides and tops of hills and moun- 
tains, to more than one hundred feet in some val- 
leys. 

The soil over the whole earth will not probably 
exceed an average depth of twelve or fifteen feet. 
When we remember that the mean diameter of the 
earth is 7,911 miles, we shall cease to wonder how 
so great a mass of soil could have been formed by 
the operation of the causes which we have named, 
in the space of 6000 years. 

Though we have applied the term soil to the 
whole mass of heterogeneous or mixed matter lying 
over the rocky crust of the globe, yet, in common 
language, it is confined entirely to that part of the 
earth's surface which is more or less mixed with 
decaying, vegetable matter, and which varies in 
depth from three to twenty inches. It is this part 
which chiefly concerns the farmer ; and it is, hence, 
to this that we shall mainly confine the term in the 
following chapters of this work. 



Sect. 2. Classification of Soils. 

Soils have been variously classified by different 
writers, some arranging them solely in regard to 
their geological origin, and others according to their 
chemical composition. The most recent writers of 



Do we, then, ever find the soil different in composition from 
the rocks that lie beneath it ? Where do we find soil of the 
greatest depth, and where the least ? What is probably the ave- 
rage depth of the soil over the globe ? What is the diameter of 
the earth ? To what is the term soil more properly restricted in 
agriculture ? In what way have different writers classified soils ? 



CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. - 41 

the former class have divided soils into alluvial, di- 
luvial, tertiary, secondary, and primary.* 

By alluvial soils, are meant those formed by de- 
positions from rivers, lakes, &c. ; and they vary ac- 
cording to the source from which they are brought. 
These soils form extensive tracts of land along the 
valleys of rivers; such as the Mohawk and Gene- 
see of this State ; the Mississippi, with its host of 
tributaries, in the west ; the Connecticut, in the east ; 
and the Susquehanna, Potomac, Savannah, and 
others of the Atlantic States. Most of these soils 
contain much vegetable matter, and are productive. 
But some, particularly along the Atlantic coast, are 
sandy and barren. 

PEATY SOILS. 

In the class of alluvials may be placed those 
called peaty soils ; which are composed, in a great 
measure, of vegetable matter in a partially decom- 
posed state. 

DILUVIAL, DRIFT, OR TERTIARY SOILS. 

Bv some of the older geologists, the diluvial soils 
are described separately from the tertiary, and were 
supposed to have their origin in glaciers or slides at 
some remote period when the position of the earth 
was different from what it is at present. 

But more extended observation shows them to 
have a common origin from the tertiary , or third 
* See Gray's Agricultural Chemistry, page 231. 

What are the classes founded on their geological origin ? What 
is meant by alluvial 1 Where are alluvial soils generally found ? 
What do these soils generally contain ? Are they always pro- 
ductive ? What were the views of some of the older writers in 
regard to the diluvial and tertiary classes ? What was the sup- 
posed origin of the diluvial ? Are the diluvial and tertiary 
classes separate ? To what geological formation do they belong ? 



42 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 

geological formation. This is generally made up 
of sand, clay, and mud, in alternate layers, and 
often not hardened into rock. Of course the soil 
will partake of the mixed nature of the ingredients 
from which it is derived. 

It seems to be a fact also, that nearly all this vari- 
ety of soil in our country, or rather the geological 
formation from which it is derived, has been moved 
in a southern or south-western direction. 

This is explained by modern geologists on the 
supposition, that at the period of its formation, this 
continent was wholly or in part submerged beneath 
the waters ; and that the natural oceanic currents 
settling in from the north, and often containing im- 
mense glaciers of ice, brought the materials for this 
formation, and gradually deposited them in alternate 
layers or strata, in the position they now occupy. 
This process was doubtless facilitated, as well as its 
regularity sometimes disturbed, by counter-currents 
from the equatorial regions. 

The soils derived from this source, are most com- 
monly found occupying the middle space between 
the alluvial or bottom lands and the mountainous 
regions ; and are hence very extensive, and in most 
cases fertile. 

SECONDARY SOILS. 

These are derived from the secondary strata or 
layers of rocks ; and as geologists include in this di- 
vision a great variety of formations, viz : the cre- 
taceous or chalky, calcareous or limy, silurian or 

What constitutes the chief part of this formation ? What re- 
markable fact seems to be connected with this formation in our 
country ? How is the fact explained ? What were the direc- 
tions of the supposed currents ? What was the influence of 
counter-currents from the equatorial regions ? In what position 
are the most of the soils of this class found ? What is their gen- 
eral agricultural character ? What is meant by secondary soils ? 



CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 43 

graywacke, argillaceous or slaty limestone, pudding 
stone, &c, the soils present a great variety of ingre- 
dients, and are often mixed with large quantities of 
fossil or animal and vegetable remains* 

PRIMARY SOILS* 

The primary class of soils is derived from the first 
or primary stratified and unstratifled rocks. To this 
class of rocks belong the argillaceous, mica and tal- 
cose slate ; primitive limestone ; gneiss, sienite, 
hornblende, porphyry and granite. Hence the 
soils of this class also present as great a variety of 
character as the rocks from which they are derived. 
They are generally found in high and mountainous 
regions, particularly in the New-England States. 

It should be observed, that this classification of 
soils, however correct in a geological sense, is still 
of but little practical value to the farmer. To him 
that classification based on the composition of the 
soil is much more intelligible, as the name of each 
variety or class immediately suggests the predomi- 
nating ingredient contained therein. But neither the 
preceding arrangement, nor the study of geology, 
on which it is based, should be neglected by the sci- 
entific agriculturist. 

Neither should the important truth ever be lost 
sight of, that the various rocks, stones, sand, &c, 
are the great storehouses of nature, in which are 



What formations are included in this division ? Are the soils 
of this class very uniform in their composition ? What objects 
•of interest are often found abundantly in this class ? What is 
meant by primary soils ? Are all rocks stratified ? What are 
the principal rocks belonging to the primary division ? In what 
situations are soils of this class generally found ? Is the fore- 
going classification of soils of much value to the former ? Why 
not ? What classification is better suited to the purposes of the 
agriculturist ? What, in reference to agriculture, constitutes, 
the great storelwuses of nature ? 



44 COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 

locked up the alkaline, earthy and metallic sub- 
stances essential to the growth of vegetables ; and 
that the winds, the moving waters, the sunshine and 
the frost, are so many keys to unlock these store- 
houses, and gradually scatter their fertilizing con- 
tents over the fields of the husbandman. 

Soils, when arranged according to the predom- 
inating ingredients of their composition, are divided 
into, 1st, siliceous or sandy ; 2d, aluminous or clayey ; 
3d, calcareous or limy ; 4th, loamy; 5th, peaty or 
carbonaceous. These will be more fully explained 
in the following section. 

Sect. 3. Composition of Soils. 

SILICEOUS. 

The siliceous soils comprise all those of a sandy 
or gravelly character, the predominating ingredient 
in which is silex or silica. They doubtless originate 
mostly from the granite, gneiss, mica and sandstone 
rocks. And whether the soil remains at the place 
of its formal ion, or is carried to other regions, form- 
ing alluvials or dilu vials, it in all cases contains 
from 65 to 90 per cent, of siliceous earth or sand. 

The soil in the southern and eastern parts of New- 
York, together with the New-England States, con- 
tains an average of about 66 per cent, of silica or 
sand earth ; from 10 to 16 of alumina or clay ; from 
1 to 10 per cent, of carbonate, phosphate and sulphate 

What are the keys to unlock those storehouses ? What are 
the classes of soils when arranged according to their composi- 
tion ? What soils are included in the class called siliceous ? — 
From what do they mostly originate ? How large a proportion 
of siliceous earth or sand do they contain ? How large a proportion 
of" silica or sand is there in most of the soils of eastern New- 
York and New-England ? What are the other principal ingre- 
dients in the same soils ? 



74.2 per 


cent 


8.3 


u 


6.6 


u 


3.5 


a 


3.0 


u 


3.3 


u 


1.1 


a 


trace. 




trace. 





COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 45 

of lime ; from 0.5 to 2 per cent, of potash ; from 1 to 
5 per cent, of iron ; and a trace of magnesia, soda, 
and ammonia; with from 5 to 10 per cent, of veg- 
etable matter. The middle and western parts of 
New-York contain a much larger portion of alumina. 

An accurate analysis of the soil taken from a cul- 
tivated field on the east side of the Chenango river, 
near the vi.lage of Binghamton, gave the following 
result, viz : — 

Silex and silicates, 

Soluble vegetable matter, - 

Insoluble, " " 

Phosphate and carbonate of lime, 

Potassa, ----- 

Oxide of iron and alumina, • - 

Soda and loss, - 

Magnesia, - 

Manganese, - 
This soil is very fertile for wheat, corn, oats, pota- 
toes, clover, &c. 

All siliceous soils are light and porous, possessing 
but little tenacity, and hence allowing water and 
other substances in solution to pass through them 
with facility. They are generally warm and dry, 
and hence very favorable to the early commence- 
ment of vegetation in the spring. But they part 
with manures rapidly, and are also more liable to 
excessive droughts in the summer than most other 
soils. 

Siliceous sand, or silica, forms from 40 to 45 per 
cent, of the entire crust of the globe, and is the prin- 

What ingredient is greatly increased in quantity, in the middle 
and western part of New-York ? To what class of soils does 
the specimen analyzed from the valley of the Chenango river be- 
long ? What are the prominent characteristics of all siliceous 
soils ? Are they favorable to the early commencement of vege- 
tation ? To what objections are they liable ? What proportion 
of the entire crust of the globe is composed of silica ? 
3* 



46 COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 

cipal substance which gives lightness and porosity 
to all soils. Most siliceous soils are productive, 
especially for corn, rye, oats, potatoes, clover, &c. 
But when the silica or sand exceeds 90 per cent., the 
soil is barren. 

ALUMINOUS. 

Aluminous, argillaceous or clayey soils, include 
all those in which the alumina exists in such quan- 
tities as to give the soil a decidedly compact and 
tenacious character. Alumina exists in all soils, 
and forms about 14 per cent, of the surface of the 
earth. It is chiefly derived from such rocks as con- 
tain feldspar, and from argillaceous or clay slate. 
This earth is seldom found pure in the soil, but is 
generally combined with silicic or crenic acids ; and, 
from its origin, is also combined with an abundance 
of potash, and most, if not all those substances ne- 
cessary to form a fertile soil. 

But if the alumina greatly predominates, the soil 
is so heavy and tenacious as to prevent the water 
from draining off; and is consequently cold, wet 
and unproductive; forming the common clay beds. 
A pure aluminous soil, like one entirely siliceous, 
is wholly barren. But when it is mixed with a suf- 
ficient quantity of siliceous sand, gravel and lime, 
to give it looseness and porosity, it forms a loam the 
most fertile of all soils. 



For what crops are siliceous soils generally adapted ? When 
the silica exceeds 90 per cent., what is the character of the soil'? 
What is meant by aluminous soil ? How large a proportion of 
the earth's surface is composed of alumina ? From what class 
of rocks is it chiefly derived ? With what is it generally com- 
bined in the soil ? What if the alumina greatly predominates 
over the other ingredients ? What does it then form ? What 
other ingredients are capable of rendering an aluminous soil 
very fertile ? 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 47 

Such is essentially the soil in most parts of west- 
ern New-York. There is a base of aluminous earth 
or clay, with sufficient sand and limestone (carb. of 
lime) to give it looseness of texture, and hence it 
forms one of the best wheat soils in the world. The 
richest aluminous soils are those of alluvial origin, 
particularly those found at the mouths of some riv- 
ers, where the products of the sea have been inter- 
mixed with them, and the whole converted by cul- 
tivation into deep fine loam. 

CALCAREOUS OR LIMY SOILS. 

Lime, in some form, exists in small quantities in 
all fertile soils ; but, as a predominating ingredient, 
it is comparatively of very limited extent. For 
though the carbonate and sulphate of lime (common 
limestone, and gypsum or plaster) form extensive 
strata or layers of rocks, and are extensively distrib- 
uted over the earth, yet they constitute but a very 
small share of the soil itself. 

In our own country, the soils average less than 3 
per cent, of the compounds of lime, the most abund- 
ant of which is the phosphate ; while most of the 
countries of Europe are stated to contain from 6 to 
20 per cent. This probably accounts for the very 
great value of lime as a manure, when applied to 
most of the soils of New-York and New-England. 

Calcareous or limestone rocks are supposed to 
form nearly one-seventh of the entire crust of the 

What is the character of the soil in western New- York? 
For what crops is it peculiarly adapted ? Where do we find the 
richest alluvial soils ? What is meant by calcareous soil ? Is 
lime generally found abundant in all soils ? How large a per 
cent, of the compounds of lime is generally found in the soils of 
this country ? Do the soils of Europe contain more or less lime 
than our own ? Why are the compounds of lime valuable as 
manures when applied to most of the soils in this country ? How 
large a proportion of the entire crust Of the globe is composed of 
lime and its compounds ? 



48 COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 

earth. They exist abundantly in the United States, 
especially in the form of carbonates. And the rea- 
son why they form so small a part of the soil, is on 
account of the resistance which their composition 
and density offers to the ordinary causes of disinte- 
gration. 

The compounds of lime enter into the composi- 
tion of growing plants, and they furnish a chief in- 
gredient in the bones of animals. Lime generally 
exists in the soil in combination with acids. In the 
bones of animals it is always united with phosphoric 
acid, in the form of phosphate of lime — sometimes 
called bone earth. 



LOAMY SOILS. 

This term has been applied to a class of soils not 
distinct from the preceding classes in composition ; 
but, in fact, made up of a mixture of all the others, 
in such proportions as to avoid the extreme dry and 
sandy nature of the siliceous, as well as the too great 
tenacity and heaviness of the argillaceous or clayey. 
In a natural state, this kind of soil is seldom found, 
except in old and deep alluvial formations. But 
there is no soil which cannot be converted into loam 
by a continued course of proper cultivation. Thus 
the liberal addition of sand and gravel from the 
nearest sand-hill to the cold clay field, with free in- 
termixture by cultivation from year to year, will 
soon convert it into the richest loam ; especially if 
some decaying vegetable matter be added to the 
mixture. On the other hand, for the soil which is 

Why then do they not exist in larger quantities in the soils ? 
Does lime enter into the composition of living plants and ani- 
mals ? With what is it generally combined ? What is meant 
by loamy soils ? Are they generally found in nature ? How 
may all soils be made loamy ? How can a poor clay soil be con- 
verted into a productive loam ? 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 49 

too sandy and dry, the nearest bed of clay is a mine 
of wealth. 

Hence one important item in ail good husbandry 
is, so to distribute the sand, clay and lime, as to 
bring all the fields to the texture of fine, moist loam. 
Some authors describe four kinds of loam, viz : — 
sandy, gravelly, clayey and peaty ; but it is evident 
that such a division only indicates that the sand, 
gravel or clay is the predominating ingredient. 

PEATY SOILS. 

Carbon and its compounds form the most promi- 
nent ingredients in all the soils of this class. They 
originate from growing vegetables, which accumu- 
late in swamps and marshy places in a half-decayed 
state, sometimes to the depth of several feet. This 
mass of vegetable matter, by the overflowing of wa- 
ter, becomes more or less mixed with sand, clay, or 
other mineral ingredients ; and assumes a loose or 
compact state according as the sand or clay predomi- 
nates. 

Sometimes the vegetable matter settles into a 
compact mass of nearly pure carbon, fit for fuel, as 
in some of the peat marshes of Ireland. The peaty 
or carbonaceous soils are ail capable of being brought 
to a high degree of fertility, by draining and proper 
cultivation. They should, indeed, rather be regard- 
ed as immense beds of vegetable manure, than as 
soils. 

What constitutes an important item in all good husbandry ? 
How many kinds of loam are described by some writers, and 
what are they called ? Why are they so called ? What consti- 
stute the most important ingredient in all peaty soils ? From 
what do soils of this class originate ? Where are they chiefly 
found ? How do they sometimes become mixed with sand, clay, 
and other mineral ingredients ? W T hat form does the vegetable 
matter sometimes assume, and for what is it then used ? How 
can peaty soils be rendered highly fertile ? 



50 COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 

It is thus seen that siliceous, aluminous, calcareous 
and carbonaceous compounds form the basis of all 
soils ; that either of them, alone, is incapable of 
supporting vegetation ; but that all mixed in due 
proportion in the same soil, retaining a small per 
cent, of oxide of iron, potash, soda and ammonia, 
present the highest degree of fertility. Hence, as 
we have already said, the highest skill of the farmer 
consists in rapidly bringing about and maintaining 
such a mixture. From a neglect to do this, thou- 
sands of peat swamps are left with nothing but the 
frogs to croak over their almost inexhaustible stores 
of manure, while the negligent farmers are reaping 
scarcely the amount of their seed from the dry and 
gravelly ridges which surround them. 



ORGANIC INGREDIENTS OF SOILS. 

Although decaying vegetable matter, aside from 
that which forms peat, does not characterize any 
particular class of soils, yet it forms an ingredient in 
all cultivated soils, second in importance to no 
other. It is, indeed, during the progress of decom- 
position and decay in vegetable or organized matter, 
that several acids are formed, which, by uniting 
with the inorganic elements we have described, such 
as alumina, potassa, oxide of iron, &c, renders 
them soluble and fit to nourish the growing plant. 



What substances form the basis of all soils ? Is either of 
them alone capable of supporting- vegetation ? When do they 
present the highest degree of fertility ? In what then does the 
highest skill of the farmer consist ? What results from a neg- 
lect of this ? Does decaying vegetable matter, aside from peat, 
characterize any particular class of soils ? What constitutes an 
important ingredient in all cultivated soils ? What substances 
are formed by the decay of vegetable matter ? With what do 
they unite in the soil ? What important quality does it impart 
to them ? 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 51 

All vegetable substances are composed ultimately 
of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen — the car- 
bon alone forming, perhaps, 50 per cent, of their 
whole bulk. In the process of decomposition, these 
ultimate organic elements unite with each other in 
new proportions, forming a variety of new com- 
pounds, some of which are still but imperfectly un- 
derstood. But the most important of these are water, 
a dark brown insoluble substance called humus by 
some, and geine by others, and which differs but 
little in composition from woody fibre ; humic or 
geic acid, which differs from humus principally in 
being soluble in 2,500 times its weight of water, and 
by its uniting with earths, oxides or alkalies, to form 
salts. 

A third compound is the crenic acid of Dr. C. T. 
Jackson, a substance of a j^ellow color, acid and 
astringent taste, and very soluble in water. It is 
composed of carbon 7, hydrogen 16, nitrogen 1 and 
oxygen 6. It has a strong attraction for earths and 
alkalies, forming soluble salts with lime, potash, 
soda, ammonia and oxide of iron. Hence its great 
importance in the soil consists in rendering these in- 
organic substances soluble, and thereby fitting them 
for absorption by the roots of living vegetables. 
This is probably the most important product of 
vegetable decomposition. 

The apocrenic acid is formed by simply exposing 
the crenic acid to the action of the air. The pro- 
portions of carbon and nitrogen are increased, while 

Of what are all vegetable substances ultimately composed ? 
How large a share of their bulk is carbon ? What are the most 
important products of vegetable decomposition? In how much 
water is humic or geic acid soluble ? With what does it unite 
and form salts ? What are the qualities of crenic acid ? Of 
what is it composed ? For what has it a strong attraction ? What 
makes it of great importance in the soil ? What is the differ- 
ence between the crenic acid and the apocrenic ? 



52 COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES. 

those of hydrogen and oxygen are diminished. 
This acid also forms salts with earths and alkalies, 
but they are less soluble in water than the crenates. 
The presence of alkalies in the soil facilitates the 
decay of vegetable matter, while most acids retard it. 
Having in this chapter spoken briefly of the for- 
mation, classification and composition of soils, we 
shall, in the next, inquire into the composition of 
vegetables, and the sources from which they derive 
their ingredients. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Sect. 1. Composition of Vegetables. 

We have already had occasion to state, that all 
vegetables are composed of oxygen, hydrogen, car- 
bon and nitrogen, combined in various proportions 
in different parts of the plant. Besides these, which 
are called organic elements, all plants contain a 
small quantity of some one of the following alkalies, 
earths, oxides or simple bodies, viz : silica, alumina, 
potash, soda, lime, oxide of iron, magnesia and 
phosphorus. These frequently exist in the living 
plant in the form of humates or crenates, and are 
called inorganic elements of plants. 

The oxygen and hydrogen in vegetables exist in 
large quantities in the form of water, while the car- 
bon makes up a large share of their solid substance, 
and the nitrogen is found mostly in the flowers and 
fruit. The inorganic ingredients are found in all 

What effect do alkalies and acids have on vegetable matter in 
the soil ? What simple substances enter into the composition of 
vegetables? With what are the inorganic elements generally 
combined ? In what state is the oxygen and hydrogen ? What 
parts of plants contain the most nitrogen ? In what parts are 
the inorganic ingredients found most abundant ? 



COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES. 53 

parts of plants, to some extent ; but in the grasses 
and grains they exist much more abundantly in the 
outer part of the stalks, and the coverings of the fruit 
or seed. 

But to gain a proper knowledge of plants, we 
should pass from their ultimate ingredients to a study 
of their more important parts, or proximate princi- 
ples.* Thus almost the entire value of the various 
species of grain depends on the maturity and per- 
fection of their fruit — the cane on its sugar; the 
potato on its starch ; the almond on its oil ; and the 
medicinal plants on their acids, alkalies, or oils. 

Wheat, rye, oats, corn and beans, are composed 
principally of albumen, starch and gluten. The first 
and the last contain large quantities of nitrogen, 
while the starch contains only carbon, hydrogen and 
oxygen. Sugar is also composed of car Don 12 parts, 
hydrogen 10, and oxygen 10. The oils are chiefly 
composed of carbon and hydrogen ; while in the 
vegetable acids, oxygen, and in the alkalies, nitro- 
gen is the predominating ingredient. All these 
proximate elements may be arranged in three classes, 
viz : acids, alkalies and neutrals. 

ACIDS. 

There are more than one hundred vegetable acids, 
very few of which, however, are of any importance 

* By proximate principles, are meant vegetable ingredients 
which are themselves compound, i. e. made up of two or more 
simple or primary elements. Thus gluten, starch and sugar are 
proximate principles or elements, yet each of them contains the 
primary elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and the first nitro- 
gen. 

What are the proximate principles of plants? On what 
does the value of the various species of grain depend ? Of what 
are wheat, rye, oats, corn, &c, principally composed ? Does 
starch contain nitrogen ? What is the composition of sugar ? 
Of what are the oils chiefly composed ? Into how many classes 
may these proximate elements be arranged ? What are they 
called ? How many vegetable acids are there ? 



54 COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES. 

either in agriculture or the arts. The principal 
worthy of notice are the oxalic acid, from the sorrel ; 
tartaric, from wine dregs ; malic, from apples ; 
citric, from limes ; acetic, from vinegar ; tannic, from 
bitter barks ; gallic, from nut-galls ; and prussic, 
from the laurel. 

All these contain a large quantity of oxygen, 
united with carbon and hydrogen, except the last 
named, which contains no oxygen, but in its place 
one proportion of nitrogen, and is excessively 
poisonous. 

ALKALIES. 

The vegetable alkalies are fewer in number 
than the acids, and have all been discovered by 
chemists since the commencement of the nineteenth 
century. They are nearly all of them medicinal, 
and highly poisonous ; but are of very little practical 
utility in agriculture. They are all characterized, 
chemically, by containing a considerable quantit}^ of 
nitrogen. The principal alkalies of this class are 
morphia, quinia, strychnia, emetia, veratria, nicotia, 
solanea, &c. 

NEUTRALS. 

The substances classed as intermediate, or neutral, 
are very numerous, and some of them important. 
They embrace the coloring matter of vegetables, 
which forms the basis of dyes ; the fixed and volatile 

Which are most worthy of note ? From what vegetables are 
they obtained ? What ingredient does hydrocianic acid contain 
that does not generally exist in vegetable acids ? When were 
the vegetable alkalies discovered ? What are their qualities ? 
Are they of any practical utility in agriculture ? What sim- 
ple substance seems to characterize their composition ? Can 
you name the principal alkalies ? Are the neutral ingredients of 
vegetables nume rous or important ? What substances are in- 
cluded in this class ? 



SOURCES OF VEGETABLE INGREDIENTS. 55 

oils; the resins, gums, extractive matter ; together 
with starch, sugar, gluten, &c, the composition of 
which we have already alluded to. 

All these proximate elements of plants contain, in 
addition to the carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitro- 
gen, of which they are chiefly composed, traces of 
earthy, alkaline and metallic substances. They 
are also exclusively the product of living plants, and 
cannot be formed in the laboratory of the chemist. 
Their ingredients are held together by a feeble 
affinity ; and hence most of them soon enter into a 
state of decay or decomposition, when separated 
from the living plant, and exposed to warmth and air. 

Sect. 2. Sources from which Living Vegetables 
derive their Ingredients. 

It will be seen by our enumeration of organic and 
inorganic ingredients, that it embraces substances 
derived from the earth, the air and the water. 
Hence every living plant must look to all three of 
these sources for the materials for its growth and 
maturity. 

Formerly it was an almost universal opinion that 
all vegetable ingredients were derived from the soil ; 
but a knowledge of the fact that the leaves of grow- 
ing plants absorb a considerable quantity of carbonic 
acid from the air, and retain its carbon, was sufficient 
to throw doubt on this opinion. Hence a variety of 
experiments were resorted to, for the purpose of de- 
termining both the amount of matter taken from the 
soil by the living plant, and the precise amount of 
carbon taken from the atmosphere. The resulfwas 

What do they all contain besides their organic ingredients ? 
Can they be formed by the chemist ? What changps soon take 
place when they are exposed to warmth and air ? Why are they 
so subject to change ? From what sources do living plants de- 
rive their ingredients ? What was formerly the prevailing opin- 
ion on this subject ? What caused a change ? 



56 SOURCES OF VEGETABLE INGREDIENTS. 

a clear demonstration that, while the inorganic in- 
gredients, together with water and a small quantity 
of carbon, in the form of humic and crenic acids, 
were derived from the soil, much the larger share of 
the carbon which forms the solid part of plants, was 
derived from the carbonic acid contained in the air. 

It seems, however, still to be doubted by some, 
whether the carbonic acid of the atmosphere is ab- 
sorbed directly by the leaves, or is washed down by 
rains, dews, &c, into the soil, and absorbed by the 
roots. But this is a question of very little practical 
importance, as in either case the origin of the car- 
bon is the same. 

Water is doubtless the principal source of oxygen 
and hydrogen. It is constantly presented (o the 
leaves in the form of vapor floating in the atmosphere, 
and dews; while it is always present holding in solu- 
tion the soluble matters in the soil, for absorption by 
the roots. 

Nitrogen, though existing in much less quantity 
than the other organic ingredients, is nevertheless 
present in all vegetables. And though it forms four- 
fifths of the atmosphere, yet vegetables seem to 
derive very little, if any from that source. It is now 
generally conceded that most of the nitrogen of 
plants is derived from ammonia — a gaseous substance 
composed of 14 parts of nitrogen and 3 of hydrogen. 
It is always present in the atmosphere, and is emitted 
abundantly by all decaying vegetable substances. 

What ingredients do vegetables derive from the soil ? What 
from the atmosphere ? What difference of opinion still prevails 
in regard to the manner in which carbonic acid gas is taken up 
by plants ? Is the question of any practical importance ? What 
is the source of oxygen and hydrogen ? In how many ways is 
water presented for the action of plants ? Is nitrogen an ingre- 
dient in all vegetables ? D--> they derive it from the atmosphere ? 
From what is it derived ? What is the composition of ammonia? 
Where is it always present, and how is it, formed ? 



SOURCES OF VEGETABLE INGREDIENTS. 57 

Hence the earth, the water and the air. each con- 
tribute freely the materials necessary for the living" 
plant. The first, by the disintegrating influence of 
air, water, heat and cold, gradually unlocks its inex- 
haustible stores of mineral or inorganic elements ; 
these combine with the geic or humic and crenic 
acids of the decaying vegetable matters, forming- 
soluble salts ; which are dissolved by the water, and 
presented to the living roots for absorption and nourish- 
ment. While the last is ever holding in contact 
with the leaves and flowers its unfailing supply of 
carbon and nitrogen, from the carbonic acid and 
ammonia which it is every moment receiving — the 
first from the respiration of animals and combustion, 
and the latter from the decomposition or decay of 
vegetable and animal matters on the earth's surface. 

And here we cannot refrain from alluding to one 
of the most beautiful illustrations of Divine wisdom 
presented in nature. Every fire kindled on the sur- 
face of the earth, and every animal that breathes, is 
constantly depriving the atmosphere of its oxygen 
and supplying it with carbonic acid; while the 
whole vegetable kingdom is as constantly appropria- 
ting the carbon of this carbonic acid to itself, and 
emitting again the oxygen — thus forever preserving 
the equilibrium, the harmony, and the activity of 
nature's works. Of the powers of the living plant 
to appropriate to itself the various elements of which 
it is composed, or, in other words, of the theories of 
assimilation, we shall speak more particularly in 
another chapter. 



What agents are constantly acting on the inorganic ingredients 
of the soil '? With what do the mineral ingredients combine to 
form salts ? By what then are they dissolved ? From what sources 
does the atmosphere receive its carbonic acid gas ? From what 
its ammonia ? How is the Divine wisdom beautifully illustrated ? 



58 MEANS FOR FERTILIZING THE SOIL. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Means possessed by man for fertilizing the Soil, 

and adapting it for the growth of any Crop 

which he may desire. . 

Although the great Architect of Nature doomed 
man to obtain his bread by the sweat of his brow, He, 
at the same time, spread before, beneath and around 
him, in rich abundance, everything which could 
contribute to render his enlightened labor productive. 
Enlightened labor, I say; for labor applied without 
knowledge, is very much like the peevish philoso- 
pher's physician, who in the treatment of disease, 
struck blindfolded and hit the patient or the disease, 
as chance or accident directed. So the farmer, 
blinded by ignorance of the composition of both the 
soil and the vegetables he wishes to grow therefrom, 
necessarily makes the results of his labor altogether 
accidental. The means possessed by man for ren- 
dering the soil productive, maybe arranged under 
the three following heads, viz : 1st, Mechanical 
operations on the soil itself. 2d, The addition 
of such inorganic substances as are deficient in the 
soil which we wish to cultivate. 3d, The addition 
of vegetable and animal substances, generally 
in a state of decay, and called manures. The first 
division includes the important processes of ditch- 



What is labor without knowledge like ? When are the results of 
the farmer's labor altogether accidental ? Does man possess any 
means for rendering the soil more productive? Under how 
many heads may these be arranged ? What are they ? What does 
the first division include ? 



DITCHING AND DRAINING. 59 

ing, draining-, leveling", ploughing, harrowing, &c. 
And though all these processes have been carried on 
by farmers from generation to generation, until it 
would seem that every child must understand them, 
yet a few observations on each will not be amiss in 
an elementary work like this. 

DITCHING AND DRAINING. 

All wet lands, whether they are low and marshy 
or elevated and filled with springs, should be drained 
to render them fit for cultivation. This is an impor- 
tant proposition, and should never be neglected by 
the agriculturist. Wet soils are generally aluminous, 
and when drained and properly cultivated, they as- 
sume the most fertile character. 

Draining is accomplished by ditches, dug in such 
a manner as to carry the water frem its source in the 
springs or marshes, to some stream or rill formed by 
nature to convey it on to the rivers, &c. The depth 
of a ditch for draining should always be such as to 
reach through the soil, and at least twelve inches 
into the subsoil below — making the whole from two 
to four feet deep. 

Ditches for draining should always be cut in such 
direction as will cut off the springs which supply a 
field or marsh, at their source, before the water issu- 
ing from them becomes diffused through the soil. 
Neglect of this rule often prevents two-thirds of the 
benefits expected from draining. We often see ditches 
cut directly through the lowest part of a field or 
marsh, extending from one principal spring to the 



What lands should be drained ? What kind of soils are most 
apt to be too wet ? How may they be made most fertile ? How 
is draining accomplished ? How deep should the ditches be dug ? 
In what direction should they be dug ? At what point should 
they cut off the springs ? Is this rule always followed .' If not, 
what is the consequence ? How do we often see ditches cut ? 



60 MEANS FOR FERTILIZING THE SOIL. 

nearest natural outlet. Now, such a ditch will do 
some good ; and if there is but one spring to be 
drained, it will answer the whole purpose. But if, 
as is generally the case, there are several springs is- 
suing from the same direction, perhaps from the side 
or base of a hill or ridge of land, it is plain that all 
these, except the one to which the ditch directly 
leads, must pass through a part of a field before 
reaching the ditch, and thereby exert all the evil in- 
fluence on the soil as though no ditch was there. 

In all such cases, to follow the rule which we 
have laid down, would be to cut a ditch directly 
through the springs, parallel with the hill or ridge 
of land ; and, if need be, another through the lowest 
part of the field, from the first to the nearest outlet 
for the water. Or if the land to be drained is a marsh, 
almost surrounded by hills, a deep ditch should be 
dug directly through the centre, for a main outlet; 
and another entirely around the circumference of the 
marsh, in such a manner as to cutoff all springs from 
the edges, and emptying itself into the central ditch 
or outlet. In this manner, almost any swamp or 
marsh may be effectually drained and rendered fit 
for cultivation. 

Very deep ditches, and those designed to contain 
considerable water, should be left open and occasion- 
ally cleaned out. But all others are rendered most 
convenient and durable, by filling them half full or 
more with rounded stones, in such a manner as to 
afford space for the water to drain through ; covering 

When do they answer the purpose intended? When do they 
fail, and why ? If you have a piece of ground made wet by sev- 
eal springs issuing from the side or base of a hill, how many 
ditches would our rule cause us to cut, and in what direction? What 
if the land be a marsh almost surrounded by hills ? What should 
be done to very deep ditches that are designed to contain much 
water ? How should all others be treated ? How should ditches 
be filled ? 



LEVELING. PLOUGHING. 61 

the stones with a layer of straw, and then filling the 
remaining- space with dirt, even with the surface of 
the surrounding soil. In this way the drain remains 
quite permanent, and still the surface of the field is 
left unbroken, to be ploughed over without obstruc- 
tion. 

LEVELING. 

This process, though less important than the pre- 
ceding, is still deserving of more attention than it re- 
ceives. Leveling cultivated grounds with the roller, 
to prepare them for meadows, is well understood, 
and often practiced. It is most beneficial on light, 
sandy soils. It should also be remarked, that t^oils 
on the sides of steep hills are better adapted to gra- 
zing than tillage, as every shower of rain is continu- 
ally washing the most valuable ingredients of such 
soils down into the valleys below, if they are kept 
loose by ploughing. 

PLOUGHING. 

Perhaps no part of husbandry is more familiar than 
ploughing, and no part, as a general rule, more im- 
perfectly done. The farmers of this country, anxious 
to gain possession of extensive farms, generally oc- 
cupy more land than they can command means to cul- 
tivate in a proper manner. The consequence is, that 
the ploughing, like everything else, is done in a 
hurry, and therefore only half done. The best 
fields are ploughed only once, and the hardest twice ; 
and what is not cut up, is said to be covered up ; and, 

What advantage is there in having the ditches covered in this 
manner ? What are meadow grounds often leveled with ? What 
soils are most benefited by the roller ? For what are steep hill 
sides best adapted ? Why ? Do farmers in this country occupy 
too much or too little land ? What is the consequence on the 
process of ploughing ? 
4 



62 MEANS FOR FERTILIZING THE SOIL. 

hence, ready for the seed. This is all wrong, and, 
in fact, ruinous both to the farm and the farmer. 

The invariable rule should be, to cultivate no more 
land than can be done well ; and in ploughing, to 
repeat the process until the soil, to the depth of a full, 
deep furrow, is reduced to a fine mellow texture, 
whether it require the process to be repeated ten 
times or only once. The furrow should also be cut 
deep enough to turn up and thoroughly expose the 
lower part of the soil, that mineral ingredients, ca- 
pable of supplying the inorganic elements of plants, 
may be exposed to the action of the air, moisture, 
&c. ; and thus fitted for the action of the roots of 
living vegetables. Such ploughing, continued for a 
few years, with due care in the addition of proper 
substances as manures, will convert almost any soil 
into a fine mellow loam ; which is the state so desir- 
able to every agriculturist. 

The advantages of having the soil in such a con- 
dition are, that it affords the greatest facility for the 
extension of the young roots, and most readily yields 
to them its nourishing qualities ; that it more readily 
absorbs the water which falls on its surface, and 
thereby prevents it from injuring the tender plants; 
and it also becomes fit for cultivation much earlier 
in the spring than a soil that has been left in a hard 
and compact state; and, finally, its loose, porous 
texture prevents it from becoming baked hard and 
dry in the season of drought, and it allows the mois- 
ture from the sub-soil below to rise through it, to 



What effect does this have both on the farm and farmer ? What 
invariable rule should be followed both in regard to the quantity 
of land and the amount of ploughing ? How deep should the 
furrow be cut? Why so deep? What effect will such plough- 
ing, with a due addition of manure, have on the soil? What 
are the advantages of having the soil in such a condition ? Why 
does it not suffer so much from droughts ? 



SUB-SOIL PLOUGHING. 63 

sustain vegetation on its surface. All soils should 
be ploughed from six to twelve inches deep, for the 
roots of many plants naturally penetrate even deeper 
than this. 



SUB-SOIL PLOUGHING. 

By sub-soil ploughing, Ave mean stirring or break- 
ing up the under soil, several inches below the ordi- 
nary surface-soil. This is done by a machine called 
a sub-soil plough, which is so contrived that at the 
same time it turns over the surface-soil in the ordi- 
nary way, it tears up and mellows the sub-soil at the 
bottom of the furrow. This kind of ploughing is of 
great benefit on all tenacious and heavy soils, and 
should be occasionally resorted to on all soils. 

It is not only beneficial to stir up and render more 
porous the sub-soil, but it is often of the greatest 
benefit on lands which have been long cultivated, to 
cut the furrow so deep as to bring the sub-soil to the 
surface, and thereby expose it thoroughly to the ac- 
tion of the weather and vegetation. This is rendered 
necessary from the fact, that during many years of 
cultivation the water has been gradually dissolving 
the soluble parts of the surface-soil and carrying 
them down into the sub-soil. Hence we sometimes 
arrive at the point where we find the sub-soil richer 
in all those ingredients required for vegetation than 
the soil on the surface. 



How deep should all soils be ploughed ? Why ? What is 
meant by sub-soil ploughing ? How is this done ? How is the 
sub-soil plough constructed ? What class of soils are most ben- 
efited by this kind of ploughing ? What kind of ploughing is 
beneficial on soils that have been long cultivated ? What object 
is gained by this ? What renders such ploughing necessary ? 
Do wc ever find the sub-soil richer than the surface ? 



64 MEANS FOR FERTILIZING THE SOIL. 

HARROWING. 

Not only should the soil be ploughed until it is 
thoroughly and deeply pulverized ; but its surface 
should be still more finely pulverized by the frequent 
and thorough application of the harrow or drag. The 
use of this instrument is also of great value for cover- 
ing the seed when sown, and for leveling the un- 
evenness of the surface. 

The addition of Inorganic Substances as means of Fer- 
tilizing the Soil. 

It will be remembered, that by inorganic substan- 
ces in agriculture, we mean all those earths, alkalies 
and metallic oxides, which either enter into the com- 
position of vegetables, serving for nourishment, or 
which promote their growth indirectly, by rendering 
the humus or geine of the soil more soluble, by neu- 
tralizing the excess of acids, by rendering the soil 
more loamy, or by absorbing and retaining, in con- 
tact with the roots, those gaseous substances which 
would otherwise escape and be lost. 

The principal substances of this kind are — 1st, si- 
liceous earth, or sand and gravel ; 2d, aluminous 
earth or clay; 3d, calcareous earth, or carbonates, 
phosphates, and sulphates of lime; 4th, magnesia 
and manganese ; 5th, alkalies — as potassa, soda and 
ammonia; 6th, oxide of iron. 

Of the nature and origin of all these substances, 
we have already treated in the preceding chapters. 
They are all furnished in abundance, ready for the 
preparing and applying hand of the farmer. The 

How can the surface of the soil be more finely pulverized than 
by the plough ? What other uses has the harrow besides finely 
pulverizing the soil ? What do we mean by inorganic substan- 
ces in agriculture ? What are the principal inorganic substances 
that may be used for fertilizing the soil ? Are these substances 
all furnished abundantly in nature ? 



VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 65 

first is found in every sand hill ; the second in every- 
day bed ; the third in the immense beds and ridges 
of limestone rocks, shells, bones, &c. ; the fourth 
generally in connection with the third ; the fifth in 
the granite, gneiss and mica rocks, in ashes, common 
salt, sea weeds, and decaying animal matters ; and 
the sixth in almost all clays. Of the preparation of 
these substances, and their applicability to particular 
soils, we shall treat in the next chapter. 

Vegetable and Animal Substances as Fertilizers of the 
Soil. 

It has already been stated, that the presence of 
more or less vegetable matter, in a state of decay, is 
necessary in every cultivated soil. We have also 
stated its nature and uses in the state in which it is 
generally found. It remains, however, to be shown, 
from what sources and in what state the agriculturist 
can obtain the supply which he needs. 

The first and chief supply of these substances 
comes in the refuse matters which accumulate in 
every farmer's barn-yard. These are made up of 
the stalks and straw derived from the harvest field, 
and the excretions of animals or farm stock. And if 
due economy and diligence is used in collecting, 
preparing and applying everything from this source, 
it is generally sufficient for the farmer's supply. 

But there are other sources which should never be 
neglected, such as the chip-yard, the peat and 
muck swamps, sea-weeds, refuse wool and gleanings 

Where may each generally be found ? What is the next 
subject treated of? What is necessary in every cultivated soil ? 
What is the first and chief source of decaying vegetable and an- 
imal matter for the farmer's use ? Of what is this supply com- 
posed ? What is necessary to render the supply from this source 
sufficient for the farmer's use ? What other sources should not 
be neglected ? 



66 MEAMS FOR FERTILIZING THE SOIL. 

of factories, hair, horns, hoofs, feathers, and bones of 
animals; the contents of privies, &c. Indeed, there 
is nothing of a vegetable or animal nature, from the 
half-decayed chip in the door-yard, to the bones that 
lie bleaching in the corners of the fields, which the 
skillful farmer may not convert into rich materials 
for fertilizing his soil. These substances are 'pre- 
sented to the agriculturist in every state or condition, 
from fresh and fully organized vegetable and animal 
matter to that of the most complete decomposition or 
decay. And their value depends almost entirely on 
the manner in which they are prepared and applied. 

The most valuable ingredients in vegetable and 
animal manures, are, humus, geine, humic and cre- 
nic acids, the soluble salts contained in the solid and 
liquid excretions of animals, and the gaseous sub- 
stances formed during animal and vegetable decom- 
position — as carbonic acid, ammonia, carburetted 
hydrogen, &c. These gases being volatile, are, like 
the liquid excretions of animals, mostly suffered to 
escape by the manner in which they are kept, and 
are, hence, lost to the agriculturist, though they are 
decidedly the richest and most valuable fertilizers of 
the soil which we possess. 

It is these liquid and volatile matters which contain 
by far the largest proportion of nitrogen, a substance 
essential to the formation of some of the most nutri- 
tive ingredients in the various grains, and hence of 
the greatest value in the growth of that class of veg- 
etables. The almost total neglect of these substances 
in our country is, perhaps, a greater loss to the agri- 

In what state are these substances presented to the farmer ? 
On what will their value depend ? What are the most valuable 
ingredients in vegetable and animal manures ? What valuable 
ingredients are generally suffered to escape or be lost by the man- 
ner in which the manure is kept ? What simple element of great 
value is contained in the liquid and volatile ingredients ? To what 
particular class of vegetables is this ingredient important ? 



PREPARATION OF MANURES. 67 

culturist every year, than is occasioned by all the 
diseases and insects which ever attack the products 
of the farm. 

Experience and observation both show, that the 
two greatest errors in American agriculture, are a 
disposition to cultivate too much land, and bad man- 
agement or total neglect of manures ; for it is as ea- 
sily demonstrable, that with an accurate knowledge 
of the soil, and a judicious preparation and applica- 
tion of organic and inorganic manures,* any desira- 
ble crop can be raised on any given soil, as any 
problem in mathematics. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Preparation of Manures, and their Adaptation to 
Particular Soils. 

The preparation of manures is one of the most im- 
portant operations of the farmer ; and one, too, re- 
quiring a good knowledge of chemical principles, 
particularly in regard to the laws of combination 
and affinity. In treating the subject, we shall follow 
the same arrangement adopted in the last chapter. 

* The term manure is applied to any substance used to promote 
the growth of vegetables. 

What are the two great errors in American agriculture ? How 
may any given crop be raised on any cultivated soil ? Of what 
does chapter sixth treat ? What constitutes one of the important 
operations of the farmer ? Of what does it require a good knowl- 
edge ? What is meant by the term manure in agriculture ? 



68 PREPARATION OF MANURES. 



Sect. 1. Inorganic Substances used as Manure. 

SAND OR GRAVEL. 

This substance exists abundantly in almost every, 
country, and is found in various forms, from very 
fine sand to pebble stones or coarse gravel. It is 
chiefly composed of silex or silica, and is admirably 
adapted for changing the composition and texture of 
cold clay soils. For this purpose a layer of it should 
be spread over the field, and then thoroughly mixed 
with the clay by the plough and harrow. In this 
way it n >t only greatly diminishes the cold and te- 
nacious qualities of the clay, and brings it nearer to 
the character of moist loam, but it also changes the 
electrical condition of the soil, and enters to some 
extent as an ingredient into many living plants. 
Whether it should be added in the form of fine sand 
or coarse gravel, will depend on the precise object 
to be accomplished. If we wish to produce an im- 
mediate effect on the first crop, fine sand should be 
used ; but if permanency of-effect is the leading ob- 
ject, it should be coarse gravel. A mixture of both 
is, however, much preferable to either alone, in al- 
most every instance. 

Fine sand is also one of the best applications to 
peat swamps and meadows, after draining. Such 
soils are too friable, and almost wholly carbonaceous. 
Hence the value of adding fine sand or silex. 

When we reflect how nearly together nature has 
almost universally placed the sand hills, the clay 

For what is sand or gravel well adapted ? How can it be used 
for this purpose ? What changes does it effect when properly- 
applied to a cold clay soil ? Does it ever enter into the composi- 
tion of living plants? When should we use fine sand ? What differ- 
ence is there in the effect between fine sand and coarse gravel? 
What form is generally preferable ? To what other soils is fine 
sand particularly applicable ? What principal defect exists in 
peaty soils ? 



CLAY, MARL, &C 69 

fields and the swamps, and how valuable to the 
agriculturist is the modifying influence of each, when 
mixed with the others, we are surprised at their al- 
most total neglect. 

CLAY, MARL, &C. 

The value of clay, or aluminous earth, for im- 
proving soils of a light, sandy nature, is beyond es- 
timation. The composition of common blue clay is 
as follows — analyzed by Prof. Hitchcock, of Massa- 
chusetts — viz : 

Water organic matter, - - 4.00 

Silica, - 61.52 

Alumina, - 20.50 

Protoxide of iron, - 9.82 

Oxide of Manganese, - .56 

Lime, - - - .56 

Magnesia, - .44 

Sulphur and loss, - . - 3.22 

It will be seen by this analysis, that clay contains, 
beside its alumina, a large quantity of oxide of 
iron, some sulphur and lime ; and in many speci- 
mens of clay the proportion of lime is greatly in- 
creased. Hence, by the addition of clay to dry, 
sandy or peaty soils, we not only improve their tex- 
ture by the adhesive qualities of the alumina, there- 
by making them more retentive of moisture and or- 
ganic manures ; but in the lime, sulphur and iron, 
we have other highly valuable materials. 

The sulphur and oxide of iron, on free exposure, 
soon form persulphate of iron, containing more or 

What kind of soils are improved by the application of alumi- 
nous earth or clay ? What is generally the composition of com- 
mon blue clay ? Which of the ingredients are particularly valu- 
able ? In what way do they improve light sandy soils ? What 
changes do sulphur and oxide of iron undergo when freely ex- 
posed to the air ? 

4 * 



70 PREPARATION OF MANURES. 

less free sulphuric acid, which, if lime is present, 
unites with it, forming the much used sulphate of 
lime or plaster. Again, the protoxide of iron, in 
taking another proportion of oxygen to form the per- 
oxide, hastens the decay of vegetable matter, and 
thereby increases the formation of humic and crenic 
acids. 

Clay, marl, and the sulphate of lime, which we 
have seen is sometimes formed from the ingredients 
contained in clay, all possess the property of absorb- 
ing and retaining many gases, particularly ammo- 
nia, carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, all of 
which are exceedingly valuable for increasing the 
growth of vegetables, when retained in contact with 
their roots in the soil. 

Hence the addition of clay to sandy and dry peaty 
soils, improves their texture by rendering them more 
retentive and tenacious ; increases their stock of 
earthy and metallic ingredients; hastens the decom- 
position of vegetable matters ; and aids in the ab- 
sorption and retention of gaseous matters, which 
would otherwise escape. Surely all these advantages 
demand for this subject more attention than it has 
yet received among practical agriculturists. 

The best mode of applying clay or marl, is to 
spread it over the sand and peat fields in the fall, 
and allow it to lie exposed to the frost and rains un- 
til spring, when it should be thoroughly mixed with 
the soil, by ploughing, &c. Alumina, the charac- 



If free sulphuric acid is formed, with what does it unite, and 
what is the compound called ? What effect does protoxide of 
iron have on vegetable matter in the soil ? What valuable prop- 
erty do clay, marl, and sulphate of lime possess? What valua- 
ble gases do they absorb ? What four important benefits are 
derived from the application of clay to dry, sandy and peaty soils ? 
What is the best mode of applying it ? How large a proportion 
of all cultivated soils should consist of alumina ? 



CARBONATE OF LIME. 71 

teristic ingredient in clay, should form at least ten or 
twelve per cent, of every cultivated soil. 

CALCAREOUS SUBSTANCES. 

The principal articles of this class are carbonate, 
phosphate, and sulphate of lime. All these have 
been long known, and used as manures, in Europe ; 
and yet, perhaps, the operation of no substances has 
elicited more controversy among- farmers than these. 
Some have declared them injurious, and others high- 
ly beneficial, a contradiction which doubtless arises 
from ignorance not only of the mode of their action, 
but of the composition of the soil to which they were 
applied. 

CARBONATE OF LIME. 

This substance, generally known by the names of 
limestone, air-slacked lime, chalk, shells, &c, is 
composed of carbonic acid and lime. It is prepared 
for use, either by pulverizing the limestone, shells, 
&c, or by burning them until the carbonic acid is 
driven off, and the oxide of calcium, or quick lime, 
as it is termed, is suffered to slack or fall to pieces 
by exposure to the air ; in which state it is partially 
re-converted into a carbonate. In this state it is 
added to such soils as are deficient in lime, and at 
the same time contain an abundance of insoluble or 
half-decayed vegetable and animal substances, and 
with the most beneficial results. 



What calcareous substances are used as manures ? Where 
have they long been used ? What has given rise to contradicto- 
ry opinions in regard to their value ? By what names is carbonate 
of lime known i What is its composition ? How is it prepared 
for use ? When it is burned what changes does it undergo? Into 
what is it partially re-converted hy exposure to the air ? To 
what kind of soils is it applied with great benefit ? 



72 PREPARATION OF MANURES. 

On such soils, the carbonate of lime acts in two 
ways, viz : 1st. Its acid displaces the silicic from 
the insoluble silicates of potash, soda, magnesia, &c, 
forming with them soluble carbonates, fit for absorp- 
tion by the living roots. 2d. Its lime acts directly 
on the insoluble humus or geine, converting it into 
humic and crenic acids ; thereby directly increasing 
the food for growing vegetables. The carbonate of 
lime not only thus increases the food of plants, but 
it also improves the texture of both the light and 
sandy, and the cold, clayey soils — it being more 
tenacious than the first, and less so than the last. 

Lime, however, when added in excess to any soil 
containing but a small quantity of insoluble vegeta- 
ble matter or humus, instead of acting beneficially, 
directly injures its fertility, at least for a time. In 
such a case, the lime, instead of converting the hu- 
mus into humic or crenic acids, forms with it an in- 
soluble compound, and thereby deprives the living 
plant of the small amount of nourishment which it 
would otherwise have derived from this source. 
This fact will probably afford an explanation of the 
directly contradictory opinions entertained concern- 
ing the value of lime as a manure. 

The invariable rule in regard to the use of lime, 
should be, that it does not already exist abundantly 
in the soil, and that there is present an abundance of 
vegetable matter on which it may act. Lime is defi- 
cient in much the larger portion of the soils in this 
country, although limestone rocks exist in great 
abundance. Hence our farmers, in most places, 

In how many ways does carbonate of lime act on the soil ? 
Can you explain the first ? What is the second ? What effect 
does it produce besides increasing the quantity of food for plants ? 
What effect does lime have on a soil deficient in vegetable mat- 
ter ? Why is it then injurious ? What should constitute an in- 
variable rule in regard to the application of lime as a manure ? 
Is lime deficient in most of the soils of this eonntrv ? 



PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 



73 



need only to be sure that their fields are well sup- 
plied with decaying vegetable matter, such as chip- 
dung, decaying roots, leaves, &c, or coarse barn- 
yard manure, to insure all the highly beneficial 
effects of this substance. 

Keeping these simple rules in view, lime may be 
added to cultivated soils in quantities varying from 
eight to fifteen bushels per acre, if air-slacked, or if 
ground or pulverized, one quarter more, with as 
much certainty of benefit as any other kind of ma- 
nure. 

PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

This substance is composed of phosphoric acid and 
lime. It is obtained principally from bones, horns, 
hoofs, and animal excretions. It is an exceedingly 
valuable manure, acting on soils and vegetation 
in a mannar very similar to the carbonate, of which 
we have just spoken. It, however, possesses this 
decided advantage — its acid itself acts as an essential 
ingredient in many valuable crops. 

Phosphate of lime also forms a prominent ingre- 
dient in guano, a highly valuable manure obtained 
in large quantities from the islands in the Southern 
Ocean. It consists of the excretions of birds, which 
resort to those islands in great numbers at certain 
seasons. It contains about 25 per cent, of the phos- 
phate of lime and magnesia, and is becoming exten- 
sively introduced to the notice of agriculturists. 

What then is the principal precaution necessary in its applica- 
tion ? How much may be applied on an acre ? Of what is phos- 
phate of lime composed ? How does it act on the soil ? What 
decided advantage does it possess over the carbonate ? What 
constitutes a valuable ingredient in guano ? Of what does gua- 
no consist ? How large a proportion of phosphate of lime and 
magnesia does it contain ? 



74 PREPARATION OF MANURES. 

The great value of phosphoric acid as an ingre- 
dient in some of our most valuable crops, renders 
every source and combination of it of much interest 
to the farmer. Hence we ought not to pass over the 
phosphatic minerals described in the geological sur- 
vey of this State. In the first number of the Ameri- 
can Quarterly Journal of Agriculture and Science, 
pages 60 and 61, three localities are mentioned 
which might be made to furnish more or less of the 
phosphate of lime for agricultural purposes. The 
first of these is eight or ten miles west of Port Kent, 
on Hogback Mountain, at the iron ore bed of Messrs. 
Thomlinson & McDonald ; the second is at the Sand- 
ford ore bed, in Moria or Westport ; and the third is 
at Crown Point; but it is yet uncertain whether any 
of these will yield the substance in sufficient quantity 
to render them extensively useful. 

Dried bones have hitherto constituted the chief re- 
liance of the agriculturist for the phosphate of lime. 
They are prepared by grinding or pulverizing, and 
applied in the same manner as the sulphate of lime 
or gypsum. 

SULPHATE OF LIME, OR GYPSUM, OR PLASTER. 

This substance, by whatever name it maybe called, 
is composed of sulphuric acid, a substance known by 
the common name of oil of vitriol, and lime. It is 
found in great abundance, forming extensive strata 

What makes phosphoric acid of great value to the agricultur- 
ist ? Are there any localities of phosphate of lime found na- 
tive in this State ? Can they afford it in sufficient quantities to 
be valuable in agriculture ? Where are the localities alluded to ? 
What has hitherto constituted the chief resource of the agricul- 
turist for phosphate of lime ? How are they prepared and 
applied ? Of what is sulphate of lime composed ? By what 
other names is it known ? What is the common name for sulphu- 
ric acid ? In what condition is sulphate of lime found in great 
abundance ? 



SULPHATE OF LIME. 75 

of rocks in many countries. These rocks are broken 
to pieces and ground, to prepare it for use. In this 
state it is sown over the fields of grass and grain, and 
applied on hills of hoed crops. 

Its mode of action, and consequently its utility, 
have been long a subject of controversy. It does 
not afford food for plants, neither is it readily de- 
composed so as to act on decaying vegetable matter 
and silicates, like the carbonate. And hence it has 
very generally been regarded as a simple stimulant 
to quicken the vital action of plants. It possesses, 
in a high degree, the property of absorbing gases; 
and hence, Prof. Liebig has attributed its whole 
benefit as a manure to its power of absorbing ammo- 
nia from the air, and keeping it in contact with the 
roots of vegetables. 

Experience has, however, demonstrated thatitis not 
equally beneficial on all soils, or on all crops grow- 
ing on the same soil, as we should suppose it would 
be, if its influence depended entirely on its absorp- 
tion of ammonia. Hence Liebig's theory has been 
objected to by some as unsatisfactory. 

The sulphate of lime or plaster proves most bene- 
ficial on alluvial and light sandy soils, and is scarce- 
ly felt on those of a cold, clayey nature. It seems 
also more beneficial when applied to corn, clover, 
peas, potatoes, cabbages, &c, than any other vege- 
tables or grains. On clover and grass fields, it is 
sown broad cast, generally in the month of May. 
On corn, and other hoed crops, it is applied directly 

How is it prepared for use ? In what way is it used ? Is its 
mode of action well understood ? How has it generally been re- 
garded ? What property does it possess in a high degree ? To 
what did Liebig attribute all its value ? Is it equally beneficial on 
all soils ? or for all crops on the same soil ? On what soils is it 
most applicable ? What crops are most benefited by it ? How 
is it applied to grass fields ? How and at what time is it applied 
to hoed crops ? 






76 PREPARATION OF MANURES. 

to the hills about the time of hoeing, in the quan 
tity of one spoonful to a hill. 

ALKALINE MANURES. 

The principal substances worthy of notice under - 
this head, are potassa or potash, soda, and ammonia, v 
All these substances enter into the composition of al- 
most all vegetables, and hence are of the first im- 
portance as ingredients of every cultivated soil. 
They are generally found combined with some acid, 
and the first two not only enter as ingredients into 
the composition of vegetables, but they, like lime, 
aid in decomposing and rendering soluble the organic 
matters with which they come in contact ; while 
the latter furnishes to plants a great share of their 
nitrogen. 

POTASH OR OXIDE OF POTASSIUM. 

The nature and composition of this substance has 
already been described. It is contained in union 
with silicic, sulphuric or carbonic acid, in all soils 
which have not been already exhausted by cultiva- 
tion. It is furnished in considerable abundance by ■ 
all aluminous, granite and volcanic formations. The 
chief resource of the agriculturist for potash, as a 
manure, is the ashes of wood ; and of this, every 
prudent farmer may save from his own fires a valu- 
able quantity every year. . I 

The composition, and consequently the value of I 
ash, depends much on the kind of wood from which 

In what quantity ? What are the principal alkaline substances 
used as manures ? Why are these substances important as in- 
gredients in cultivated soils ? What valuable purpose do they 
serve besides furnishing food for plants ? What is the composi- 
tion of potash ? With what is it combined in all soils ? What 
kind of rocks afford it in abundance ? What constitutes the 
chief resource of the agriculturist for potash ? On what does 
the value of ash depend ? 



POTASH, OR OXIDE OF POTASSIUM. 77 

it is obtained. The soluble part of ash is composed 
of carbonate, sulphate and muriate of potash and 
soda; the insoluble portion, of silicate of potash 
and carbonate and phosphate of lime, magnesia and 
manganese, with a trace of oxide of iron. 

It will be seen that all these ingredients are high- 
ly valuable additions to the soil. The silicate of 
potash forms a prominent ingredient in the sheath 
or outer covering of grasses and grains, while the 
phosphates are equally important ingredients in 
other parts of grain, especially of the fruit or berry 
of wheat. Indeed, the ash of the various grains 
grown in this country, separate from the straw, con- 
tains from 40 to 50 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 
from 19 to 37 per cent, of potash and soda. Hence 
repeated removals of these crops from the same soil, 
without any return, very rapidly exhaust it of this al- 
kali ; and hence the great value of frequently sow- 
ing all grass and grain lands over with ash. 

From five to fifteen bushels of unleached ash may 
be sown on an acre, in the same manner as plaster ; 
and on corn it may be applied to the hill. Leached 
ash is mostly deprived of its soluble salts of soda and 
potash ; but the silicates, phosphates and carbonates 
of lime, potash and magnesia, are still very valu- 
able, both as ingredients of plants, and as acting on 
the humus and organic matters in the soil, in the 



What is the composition of the soluble part of ash ? What 
the insoluble ? What forms a prominent ingredient in the sheath 
or outer covering of the grasses and grains ? Into what parts 
of the crops do the phosphates enter as necessary ingredients ? 
How large a proportion of the ash of wheat, oats, &c, is com- 
posed of phosphoric acid and potash? What effect is produced 
by repeated removals of the same crop from the same soil ? 
How much unleached ash may be applied to the acre of grass or 
grain land ? How may it be applied to the corn crop ? What is 
the difference between leached and unleached ash ? What renders 
leached ash still valuable as a manure ? 



78 PREPARATION OF MANURES. 

same manner as the salts of lime, to which we have 
already alluded. 

SODA. 

This substance exists in the soil in much less quan- 
tities than potash. It enters into the composition of 
very few rocks, being found principally in serpen- 
tine and volcanic formations. Its action on vegeta- 
tion is in all respects similar to potash, though much 
less necessary. 

The chief resource of the farmer, is in the chloride 
of sodium or common salt, a substance widely dif- 
fused throughout nature, and existing in great 
abundance in sea-water, and in solid masses beneath 
the surface of the earth in many countries. It is 
composed of chlorine and sodium, one proportion of 
each. But when it is dissolved in water, the chlo- 
rine takes hydrogen, and is converted into muriatic 
acid ; and the sodium unites with one proportion of 
oxygen, to form soda. Hence, in solution, we have 
muriate of soda. % 

It may be applied to soils, particularly of a sandy 
nature, in quantities of from six to fifteen bushels 
per acre, with great benefit; and if the salt is sown 
on the field some time before the seed is sown, much 
larger quantities may be used without danger of bad 
effects. But too much salt applied directly to any 
crop will destroy it. Perhaps the best mode of using 

In what natural formations do we find soda ? What substance 
does it resemble in its action on vegetation ? What constitutes 
the chief supply of soda for agricultural purposes ? What is the 
proper name of common salt ? Of what is it composed ? Where 
does it exist in great abundance ? What change does it under- 
go when dissolved in water ? To what soils may it be applied 
with benefit ? How much may be applied per acre ? Under what 
circumstances may we apply more with safety ? Is there any 
danger of applying too much ? What is the best mode of using 
salt? 



AMMONIA. 79 

salt, is to mix or compost it with peat, stable manure, 
or lime. The best proportions for use with manure 
are, one bnshel of salt to six or eight tons of stable 
manure. If it is to be used for wheat, on which it 
proves of great value, the manure may be spread on 
the soil as usual, and the salt sown with the seed. 

When mixed with lime, two parts of the latter 
should be mixed with one of salt, and allowed to 
remain several weeks before it is used. In this case 
the salt is decomposed and muriate of lime is form- 
ed, while the caustic soda is left free to act power- 
fully on the insoluble vegetable matter which may 
be present in the soil to which it is applied. Mixed 
with soot, in equal parts, salt has a powerful influ- 
ence on root crops, such as beets, carrots and pota- 
toes, in some instances doubling the product per acre. 

A small quantity of salt mixed with the soil in 
each hill of corn is a pretty sure preventive against 
the attacks of wire and cut worms ; and, indeed, it 
is quite probable that one of the most valuable qual- 
ities of salt, when applied to the soil, will be found 
in its destructive action on insects of all kinds. 

AMMONIA. 

We have already stated the composition of this 
alkali to be 14 of nitrogen and 3 of hydrogen. In 
its free state it is gaseous, with a pungent smell, 
and strong alkaline taste. It is absorbed in large 
quantities by water, charcoal, gypsum or plaster, 

What is the best proportion for mixing with stable manure ? 
On what crop is it particularly beneficial ? How may it be ap- 
plied to wheat, and in what quantities ? In what proportion may 
it be mixed with lime and what precaution is necessary ? What 
changes take place in this mixture ? To what crops is it very 
beneficial when mixed with soot ? What will prevent attacks of 
wire and cut worms ? What is the composition of ammonia ? 
What are its sensible qualities ? By what is it absorbed ? 



80 PREPARATION OF MANURES. 

dry clay, &c. It may be detected in the juices of 
all plants, its principal use being to supply them 
with nitrogen. It is always present in the atmo- 
sphere in sufficient quantities to supply the wants of 
vegetation. It also exists in the soil, to which it is 
constantly brought by rains and such mineral sub- 
stances as absorb gases. 

Its principal supply for agricultural purposes is in 
animal and vegelable manures. Hence it is unne- 
cessary to say much of it, except in connection with 
the preparation and use of those substances. It unites 
readily with most acids, but is never used in a sepa- 
rate state as a manure. 

Sect. 2. Organic or Vegetable and Animal Manures. 

The composition and qualities of vegetable sub- 
stances mixed with soils, we have already mentioned 
in Chapter III., in reference to the organic ingredi- 
ents of soils. The most important products arising 
from vegetable and animal manures, such as the 
humus or geine, humic and crenic acids, carbonic 
acid, and ammonia, from vegetable matter ; and 
phosphates, carbonates, sulphates, muriates, and 
urates of lime, potash, soda, and ammonia, from 
animal excretions, have also all been described, both 
in regard to their composition and mode of action. 
Hence it remains to describe their mode of prepara- 
tion and application. 

Two things should always be kept in view in the 
preparation of this class of manures. The first is to 

In what part of plants may it be detected ? What is its prin- 
cipal use ? Where is it always present ? What affords the prin- 
cipal supply for agricultural purposes ? With what does it read- 
ily unite ? Is it ever used in a separate state as a manure ? 
What are the most important products in vegetable manures ? 
What in animal manures ? What is the first thing to be kept in 
view in the preparation of this kind of manures? 



VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL MANURES. 81 

effect a complete decomposition of the organic mat- 
ter, whether vegetable or animal, and its conversion 
into soluble salts and gaseous substances ; and the 
second, to retain these until they can be applied to 
the soil in a manner the most effectual for promoting 
the growth of crops. 

The first of these is effected by a species of fer- 
mentation, induced by exposing the organized mat- 
ter to a certain degree of warmth and moisture ; and 
the second by mixing With the fermenting materials 
some substance which will absorb the valuable gases 
as fast as formed, and by sheltering the whole from 
rains, and everything calculated to wash away the 
soluble matters formed. 

The refuse matters which accumulate in every 
farmer's barn-yard, constitute his principal depend- 
ence for manure. And, as a general rule, the quan- 
tity and quality of his crops will be in direct propor- 
tion to the skill and prudence which he exhibits in 
the preparation and application of this kind of ma- 
nure. If he removes his crops from his fields from 
year to year, without returning anything in the form 
of manure, his soil soon becomes exhausted of veg- 
etable matter, and those inorganic substances which 
we have described as necessary to vegetation, and 
his fields will be left unproductive. Or if he leaves 
all his manure scattered over his barn-yard, with the 
ammonia and other gaseous matters to escape en- 
tirely, and the soluble parts to be washed away by 
rains and lost, with all the liquid excretions of ani- 

What is the second ? How is the first object accomplished ? 
How is the second ? What constitutes the farmer's principal de- 
pendence for manure ? On what will the quantity and quality of 
his crops depend ? What will be the effect of removing his crops 
from year to year without adding any manure to his soil ? What 
effect will such a course have on the productiveness of the soil ? 
What, if he leaves his manure scattered over the barn-yard, ex- 
posed to the rain, &c. ? 



OZ PREPARATION OF MANURES. 

mals, and then applies the solid matter which re- 
mains, which is composed almost wholly of geine 
or carbonaceous matter, to his fields, he may con- 
tinue to obtain abundant crops of stalks or straw, but 
will assuredly fail to obtain a good yield of corn or 
grain of any kind. For in this instance the ammo- 
nia, which yields nitrogen ; the phosphoric acid, the 
potash, and other alkalies, which are particularly 
necessary to the full development of all the grams 
and grasses, are almost entirely lost, while the straw, 
which is composed of a very large proportion of car- 
bon, is supplied. 

To prevent so great a waste of valuable matter, 
many agriculturists have adopted the plan of gath- 
ering the refuse matter of the barn-yard, including 
the solid excretions of animals, into one bed, through 
which are scattered several layers of swamp muck, 
or leached ash, or old plaster, or air-slacked lime, 
and the whole covered with muck or common earth. 
A degree of fermentation soon ensues throughout 
the mass — the vegetable matter is converted into 
humus, and humic and crenic acids, while the am- 
monia, carbonic acid, and other gaseous substances, 
are mostly absorbed and retained by the muck, and 
other earthy or alkaline materials scattered through 
the mass ; and if the whole is sheltered from rains, 
it becomes in a few weeks or months a mass of fine 
compost or manure, containing a rich supply of those 
ingredients which add so much to the fertility of any 
soil. 



Of what is the solid matter which remains chiefly composed ? 
What effect will such manure have on the crop ? Why will it 
promote the growth of stalks or straw, and not the grain or fruit ? 
How do some farmers prepare their manures ? What change 
takes place in such a ; heap? What absorbs the ammonia 
and other gases ? What is the result in a few weeks or 
months ? 



VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL MANURES. 83 

This process is called composting, and the pro- 
duct compost, to distinguish it from other manure. 
It is a very great improvement over the ordinary 
method of permitting everything to lie scattered over 
the barn-yard, to be washed away and wasted, on 
account of its better quality, and much greater quan- 
tity, caused by the addition of earth, muck, &c. 

But this method is highly objectionable on account 
of its making no provision for saving the urine, or 
liquid excretion of the animals, which of all sub- 
stances is perhaps the richest and most valuable for 
promoting the growth of farm produce. It is com- 
posed almost entirely of water highly charged with 
soluble phosphates, carbonates, and sulphates of 
ammonia, soda, potash and lime, which we have 
already seen are the most valuable fertilizing salts 
which we possess. How, then, shall the farmer 
save this valuable material, and what course shall 
he adopt to convert all the refuse matter, not only 
of the barn-yard, but of the whole farm, into the 
most valuable manure for his soil ? The following 
is undoubtedly the best and most economical mode 
which has yet been devised. 

1st. Let good stables be prepared for all the farm 
stock, as well for the comfort and safety of the ani- 
mals, and cheapness of keeping, as for the saving 
of both the liquid and solid excretions for manure. 

2d. Let ample cellars be prepared, extending un- 
derneath the whole of the stables, with troughs so 
fixed underneath the floor that all the liquid excre- 
tions shall be conducted into one or more cisterns 

What is this mode of preparing manure called ? What are 
the advantages of this method ? To what strong objection is it 
liable ? What is the most valuable substance we possess for pro- 
moting the growth ef vegetables ? What are the principal in- 
gredients in urine ? Why should all farm stock be kept in sta- 
bles during the winter ? How, and for what purpose should 
cellars be constructed under the stables ? 



84 PREPARATION OF MANURES. 

provided for that purpose, and from which it may 
be conveniently conducted to any part of the cellar. 

3d. When winter approaches, and the time for 
stabling the stock comes, let the whole bottom and 
edges of the cellar be covered several inches deep 
with swamp muck, or chip manure, or clay, or even 
common earth, and then let all the solid excretions, 
litter, &c, from the stables or elsewhere, be thrown 
directly into the cellar, through convenient trap 
doors prepared for that purpose, instead of being 
thrown out of doors to be washed by rains and lost. 
At the same time, let the troughs which conduct the 
urine from the stables be so arranged as to pour that 
material directly upon the other matters thrown into 
the cellar. A little corn, or other grain, should be 
daily scattered over this, and the hogs allowed free 
access, for the purpose of inducing them to root over 
and thoroughly mix the whole. 

4th. Let the farmer always keep on hand a few 
bushels of air-slacked lime, and a few wagon loads 
of muck, clay, or chip dung, and all the leached 
ash, dried and broken bones, refuse or spoiled fruits, 
or other gleanings of the farm ; and every two or 
three days let a thin layer of these substances be 
spread over the products of the stable in the cellar, 
and perhaps once a week scatter over it half a bushel 
or more of the lime. 

By this method an immense bed of the richest 
manure is accumulated every winter, ready for use 
in the spring, and of a quality amply sufficient to 
enrich every cultivated field on any farm of reason- 
able size. And every farmer who faithfully applies 

How should these cellars be prepared for the reception of ma- 
nures ? What materials should be permitted to go into the cellar ? 
How should they be mixed ? What should the farmer always 
keep on hand ? What should he do with them ? And how often ? 
What is the result of such a course? Why will not the farmer 
who follows this method complain of " worn-out fields ?" 



VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL MANURES. 85 

the manure so formed, will never complain of u worn- 
out or barren fields." 

The great advantages of this method are, 1st, It 
accumulates and saves everything capable of being 
converted into manure; 2d, The lime, muck, &c, 
distributed through it, absorb and retain all the gas- 
eous substances formed ; and, 3d, It is so sheltered 
above, and lined with muck or earth beneath, that 
all the liquid and soluble materials are retained. 
Hence one ton of such manure is more valuable for 
promoting the growth of any crop, than six, or even 
ten tons taken from the open barn-yard in the ordi- 
nary way ; and also far better than the best compost 
prepared without the addition of urine. 

Two objections would doubtless be urged by many 
agriculturists who have given but little attention to 
the subject. The first is, that the method would in- 
volve too much expense and labor in stabling the 
stock, preparing the cellars, &c. ; and second, that 
such a bed of fermenting manure underneath the 
barn or stable, would be very offensive. 

Concerning the first, we reply, that abundant ex- 
perience has proved it both cheaper and easier to 
winter stock in the stable, than out of doors, exposed 
to all the storms and changes of our inclement sea- 
sons. Indeed, so true is this, and so much better is 
the condition of the stock in the spring, that most 
intelligent farmers of the present day stable all their 
cattle and horses, and provide good shelter for their 
sheep. The stables should always be kept well ven- 
tilated and cleanly. 

What is the first great advantage of this method ? What is the 
second ? What the third ? What is one ton of such manure 
equal to, for promoting the growth of farm crops ? How does it 
compare with good compost ? What objections would naturally 
be urged against this method ? What has experience proved in 
regard to the first objection ? How do the most intelligent farm- 
ers treat their stock during the winter ? How should the stables 
be kept ? 

5 



86 PREPARATION OF MANURES, 

In regard to the expenditure for lime, and the la- 
bor in drawing muck, &c, we would ask which the 
farmer would prefer — to spend five or ten dollars peF 
annum for lime and plaster, and four or five days' 
work with a team, to haul muck, clay, or earth, to 
prepare the cellar, and thereby obtain a bed of ma- 
nure which will enable him to obtain, by the same 
labor in cultivation, 30 or 35 bushels of wheat from 
every acre which would produce but 15 before ; 50 
bushels of corn instead of 20 per acre ; and 400 bush- 
els of potatoes instead of 200: or to move on, wast- 
ing the most valuable part of his manure, starving 
his soil, permitting enough of his stock to die annu- 
ally from exposure to the cold and storms of winter, 
to half pay for building a good stable to keep them 
in ; forever grumbling about the hardness of his lot 
in getting but half a crop from his fields ; and, final- 
ly, starving out himself, or emigrating to some far- 
off land of promise? 

And in reference to the second objection, it is only 
necessary to add that the time and earthy matter, 
from time to time scattered over the cellar, wholly 
prevents the disagreeable odor, by absorbing the 
gases on which it depends. Sometimes, when a 
farmer has a cold clay field to render fit for cultiva- 
tion, it will be best to save a good supply of straw, 
undecayed, to plough into it ; in connection with a 
coat or layer of sand and gravel from the nearest 
sand hill. 

In the vicinity of large manufacturing establish- 
ments, much valuable additional manure may be 

How are the expenditures for cellars, lime, muck, &c, more 
than repaid ? How much may the product per acre of wheat, 
corn, potatoes, &c, he increased by the judicious preparation and 
application of manure ? How is the second objection answered ? 
To what kind of soil may undecayed straw be applied with ben- 
efit ? What valuable materials may be obtained from manufac- 
turing establishments? 



VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL MANURES. 87 

obtained, by gathering the refuse wool, hair, hoofs, 
&c, and adding- them to the cellar or compost 
heap. And all that has been said concerning the 
value of animal excretions, will apply also to those 
of man ; which may be found fully treated of in nu- 
merous agricultural papers and essays, under the 
head of Night Soil. The same principles will apply 
in the preparation and application of this, as in all 
other animal excretions. 

Much more might be written on the subject of ma- 
nuring, but it is the object of this work to present 
general principles, rather than minute detail. For 
if the farmer understands fully the object to be ac- 
complished, he will seldom fail to find a way to ac- 
complish that object, suited to his circumstances. 

These objects, we repeat, are : 1st. To obtain as 
large a quantity of organic and inorganic manures 
as possible. Hence all the solid and liquid excre- 
tions of animals, or farm stock ; all the straw, refuse 
hay, spoiled fruit, decayed chips, peat, muck, &c, 
must be saved for the first ; ancl all the ash, leached 
and unleached ; bones, dried and crushed, or pulver- 
ized ; soot, lime, plaster, &c, for the last. 

2d. It is the soluble part of all manures that is 
valuable for promoting vegetation; and as this is 
particularly liable to be washed away by rains, all 
manures should be protected by sheds, barn-cellars, 
or something equivalent. 

3d. All vegetable and animal substances in a state 
of decay, like barn-yard manure, emit ammonia and 
other gaseous substances, which, if not absorbed, es- 
cape into the air and are lost. Hence this should 



What should always be the first object of the farmer in reward 
to manures ? What then should he be careful to save ? Why 
should all manures be protected by sheds, cellars, or something 
equivalent? What do all decaying vegetable and animal sub- 
stances emit ? How can the escape of these be prevented 2 



88 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 

always be prevented by the addition of dried clay, 
air-slacked lime, plaster, powdered charcoal, leached 
ash, or even common soil. 



CHAPTER VII. 

The best Modes of analyzing Vegetable Substances and 
Soils, with Tables showing the composition of various 
Grains, Grasses, Soils, §c, according to the Anal- 
ysis of the best chemists* 

From what has been said in preceding- chapters, 
every scholar will readily perceive that a knowledge 
of the composition and properties of soils and vegeta • 
bles is as necessary for the farmer, as a knowledge 
of the composition of drugs is to the physician. 

Not only is such knowledge indispensable to ena- 
ble him to adapt the kind and quality of his manure 
to his soil, but it is equally important in enabling 
him to adopt a judicious plan of rotation or succes- 
sion of crops ; for the principle on which every sys- 
tem of rotation should be founded, is that of annu- 
ally applying to the same field a crop which mainly 
depends for its support on different substances from 
the one that preceded it — thereby preventing the 
soil from becoming too rapidly exhausted of any one 
of its valuable ingredients. 

There are several methods of analysis adopted by 
different chemists ; but we shall present that method 
only which seems to combine the greatest simplicity, 
accuracy and ease in its performance. 

What is as necessary for the farmer, as a knowledge of drugs 
is to the physician ? What will such knowledge enable him to do ? 
On what principle should every system of rotation or succession 
of crops be founded ? Why ? Is there more than one mode of 
analysis ? 



ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 89 

Sect. 1. Analysis of Soils. 

The object of every analysis of soils should be, to 
ascertain, 1st, The quantity of water it is capable of 
absorbing ; 2d, The quantity of soluble and insoluble 
vegetable matter, called humus or geine, and humic 
and crenic acids; 3d, The quantity of lime, potash, 
soda, magnesia and ammonia — these are generally 
found in combination with acids, and are, hence, 
called salts ; 4th, The quantity of oxide of iron, 
alumina and silex. 

The soil to be analyzed should be taken fresh from 
the field, sifted through a fine sieve, and 1000 grains 
of it accurately weighed. Take 100 grains of this, 
place it on letter paper, and expose it to as high a 
temperature as possible without scorching the paper, 
until it is thoroughly dried, and weigh it again. The 
loss will indicate the quantity of water which the soil 
contained. Then expose it to the open air thirty- 
six hours, and weigh the third time. The amount 
gained after drying, will show the absorbent power 
of the soil. 

The second process consists in taking 100 grains of 
the soil previously well dried, and add to it 50 grains 
of carbonate of potash, dissolved in four ounces of 
water. Boil it half an hour, let it settle, and pour 
off the clear liquid, and wash the residue in four 
ounces more of boiling water. Throw the whole on 
a filter, which has also been carefully weighed, and 
continue to add water until it passes through the 
filter colorless and tasteless. Then dry the filter, 
with its contents, at a temperature equal to boiling 
water, until it is as dry as before the process was be- 

What are the several objects to be accomplished in every com- 
plete analysis of soils ? In what state should the soil intended 
for analysis be taken ? What are the two first steps to be taken ? 
How do you find the quantity of water in the soil, and the quan- 
tity it is capable of absorbing ? 



90 



ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 




gun. Weigh it carefully, and the loss sustained will 
indicate the quantity of soluble vegetable matter in 
the 100 grains of soil. The vegetable matter re- 
mains in the water, imparting to it a brownish color. 

To ascertain the quantity of insoluble vegetable 
matter, place the contents of the filter just mentioned 
in a crucible, (it should be platina,) and heat it to 
full redness, when the vegetable matter 
will disappear. If any animal matter is 
present, it will emit a smell resembling 
burnt feathers. After the burning is com- 
pleted, place the contents of the crucible 
back on the filter, and weigh as before. 
The loss sustained will show the quantity 
of insoluble vegetable and animal matter 
contained in the 100 grains of soil. 

To accomplish the third object, take 100 grains 
more of the dried soil ; expose it in a crucible to a 
full red heat, to destroy the vegetable and Fig. 3. 
animal matter ; then place it in a small glass 
flask, and pour on it two drachms of muri- 
atic acid and six drachms of water. Note 
whether any effervescence ensues, which 
will indicate the presence of a carbonate, 
generally of lime or potash. Add two 
drachms more of acid, and boil half an hour over a 
spirit lamp. Throw the whole on a filter, previously 
weighed, and continue to wash it with water until it 
passes through the filter tasteless. Dry the filte r 



Crucible. 



Flask. 



How do you ascertain the quantity of soluble vegetable matter 
contained in 100 grains of soil ? To how high a temperature 
must it be exposed in drying? What becomes of the soluble 
vegetable matter ? How do you ascertain the quantity of insoluble 
vegetable matter ? How do you know whether animal matter is 
present? How do you ascertain the quantity of soluble salts of 
lime, potash, soda, &c. ? How can you know whether any of 
the salts were in combination with carbonic acid ? How long 
must the boiling be continued in this process ? 



ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 91 

with its contents, as already directed, and weigh 
again. The loss sustained will indicate the quantity 
of soluble salts of lime, potash, &c, while the con- 
tents of the filter will be mostly silex or siliceous 
sand. 

To ascertain the quantity of each salt, take the 
acid liquid obtained from the last filtering, mg 4> 
and place it in a glass flask ; add to it a o^ 
few drops of nitric acid, to peroxidize what- I / 
ever iron there may be present, and boil it. y 
Then, while warm, add liquid ammonia as ^^ 
long as a precipitate continues to fall down. Test GlaM - 
Filter the whole as directed in other cases, dry the 
contents of the filter, and their weight will indicate 
the quantity of oxide of iron and alumina in the 100 
grains of soil. 

Then take the ammoniacal solution which passed 
through the filter, add to it a solution of oxalic acid 
or oxalate of ammonia, which will precipitate all 
the lime in the form of an oxalate. This must be 
separated by filtering, drying and weighing, as be- 
fore ; which will show the quantity of oxalate of 
lime, which is composed of oxalic acid and water 54 
parts, and oxide of calcium or lime 28.5 parts. 

To determine the quantity of magnesia, add to 
the liquid left, after separating the lime, a solution 
of phosphoric acid, which will precipitate the mag- 
nesia in combination with phosphoric acid and am- 
monia. This must also be separated by filtering, 
drying at a high heat to drive off the ammonia, and 
weighing ; the result will give the weight of the 



What remains on the filter after drying ? How do you ascer- 
tain the quantity of each salt ? What will precipitate the oxide 
of iron and alumina ? How are they separated ? What will 
precipitate the lime ? What is the composition of oxalate of 
lime ? What will separate the magnesia ? How can the ammo- 
nia be separated from the precipitate ? 



92 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 

phosphate of magnesia, which is composed of phos- 
phoric acid 35.7, and magnesia 20.7 parts. Hence 
by deducting the proportion of acid, the quantity of 
magnesia in the 100 grains of soil will be shown. 

There may be still left in the solution, potash, 
soda and manganese. If a stream of sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas is now passed into it, the manganese 
will be precipitated in the form of sulphuret, and 
may be separated by the filter. The contents of the 
filter should be heated to redness, and the manganese 
will be converted into a black oxide, when it may be 
weighed. 

The remaining solution, containing whatever potash 
and soda there was in the 100 grains of Fi 4 
soil, should now be evaporated to dryness, Mf~^ 
and the residue heated to a red heat, to \^JjjJjf 
drive off the ammonia. The remainder Evaporating 
now consists of phosphate of potash and Dlsh ' 
soda, with perhaps a trace of these alkalies combined 
with sulphuric acid. 

To determine the quantity of potash, re-dissolve 
the dry salts in pure water, and precipitate the pot- 
ash by adding a few drops of chloride of platina; 
filter, dry, and weigh as usual. The dried precipi- 
tate will consist of a chloride of platina and potash, 
in the proportion of chlorine 72 parts, platina 98.6 
parts, and potassa or potash 47.15 parts. By deduct- 
ing the proportions of the two former, the quantity 
of the latter will be ascertained. The loss which 
now remains in the liquid, of the 100 grains of soil, 
may be considereed, in part at least, as some salt of 
soda. 

Of what is the phosphate of magnesia composed ? What may- 
still be left in the solution after all these substances have been 
separated ? How may the manganese be separated ? How can 
the potash and soda be obtained ? Why do you heat the residue 
to redness ? With what acids may the potash and soda be 
combined ? What substance will separate the potash after it 
has been re-dissolved ? 



ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 93 

For all practical purposes, it is unnecessary to sep- 
arate the potash and soda ; as the action of these 
alkalies on vegetation is in all respects very similar. 
The result of the analysis may then be stated in a 
tabular form, as follows, viz : — 

1 Water of absorption, " 1 6 Salts of lime, " 

2 Soluble vegetable matter, " | 7 do. magnesia, " 

3 Insoluble do. do. " I 8 do. manganese, " 

4 Silex & silicates insoluble, " | 9 do. potassa, " 

5 Oxide of iron and alumina, " 10 do. soda and loss, " 

The question whether the earths and alkalies 
were principally carbonates or not, will be deter- 
mined by the amount of effervescence when the 
muriatic acid is added in the first part of the analysis. 
The immediate fertility of any soil will depend prin- 
cipally on the quantity of soluble vegetable matter 
and salts of lime, potash, magnesia, &c, which it 
contains. Its capability of being made fertile by 
proper cultivation, will depend, also, on the quantity 
of insoluble vegetable matter and alumina. 

An analysis sufficient for most practical purposes, 
would consist in taking 100 grains of soil, well dried, 
place it in a crucible and heat it to redness until all 
the vegetable and animal matters are burned off. 
Weigh it carefully, and the loss will indicate the 
quantity of organic matter. Put the burned earth 
into four drachms of diluted muriatic acid. Boil it 
half an hour, and throw the whole on a filter, and 
continue to add warm water until it comes through 
the filter colorless and tasteless. Then dry the con- 
tents of the filter and weigh again. The quantity 

Is it necessary for practical purposes to separate the potash and 
soda ? Why ? How may the result of the analysis be stated ? 
How can you tell whether the earths and alkalies were princi- 
pally carbonates ? Upon what will the immediate fertility of any 
soil depend ? Upon what its capability of being made 'fertile ? 
How may an analysis sufficient for most practical purposes be 

made? 

5* 



94 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 

will show the amount of silex and insoluble sili- 
cates, or, as Dr. Dana calls it, granitic sand ; and 
the loss will indicate the quantity of soluble salts, 
capable of being acted on by living vegetables. 

The following tables exhibit two conditions of the 
same soil. The one marked A, is in its natural 
state, and capable of producing but ten bushels of 
corn per acre, and less of other grain. The second, 
marked B, is in a high state of cultivation, and pro- 
duces sixty bushels of corn, or two tons of hay per 
acre. They were analyzed by Dr. C. T. Jackson. 





A. 


B. 


Water of absorption, 


1.80 


1.55 


Soluble vegetable matter, 


2.50 


4.60 


Insoluble do. do. 


2.00 


1.50 


Peroxide of iron, 


2.10 


2.07 


Alumina, 


2.10 


1.39 


Magnesia 


1.00 


00 


Phosphate and crenate of lime, 


00 


a trace. 


Silex and insoluble silicates, 


88.20 


89.10 



99.70 100.21 

Here almost the only difference between the soil, 
in its native state, and when brought to a very high 
degree of fertility, consists in almost doubling the 
quantity of soluble vegetable matter. 

The following exhibits the composition of two soils, 
one (A) from Lasalle county, Illinois, and never 
cultivated ; and the other (B) from the Sciota val- 
ley, Ohio, cultivated fourteen years without manure. 
Both belong to the best quality of soils, and were 
analyzed by Prof. Hitchcock. 

What do the two following tables exhibit ? In what state is 
the soil in the table marked A ? How much corn is it capable of 
producing to the acre ? In what state is that in the table marked 
B ? How much is it capable of producing ? What constitutes 
the difference between the two ? What do the two following 
tables represent ? How long has the soil B been cultivated with- 
out manure ? Bv whom were thev analyzed ? 



ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 95 



A. B. 

Soluble vegetable matter, 7.6 4.5 

Insoluble do. do. 13.8 6.7 

Sulphate of lime, 18.4 2.1 

Phosphate of lime, 0.4 0.9 

Carbonate of lime, 3.3 2.8 

Silicates, (of potash and alumina,) 73.5 83.0 

Water of absorption, 9.5 5.3 

126.5 105.3 

These tables are not only sufficient as examples of 
the composition of soils, but they illustrate one of the 
most important facts in practical agriculture, viz : — 
1st, That the fertility of the soil depends, in a very 
great measure, on the quantity of soluble vegetable 
matter and soluble salts which it contains ; and 2d, 
That both are constantly abstracted by cultivation, 
thereby reducing the soil ultimately to entire bar- 
renness, unless renewed by judicious manuring. 

Thus, in the two last specimens given, the soil 
from the Sciota valley, originally as rich in these 
substances as any in the world, after a cultivation of 
fourteen years without manure, gives but half of the 
vegetable matter, and less than half of the salts, 
which are found in the new soil from Laselle coun- 
ty, Illinois. What a lesson this to those farmers 
who waste all their manure, or, at least, all the 
soluble parts of it, and then complain of ct poor 
crops" and " worn-out fields !" 

To give an idea of the absolute amount of mate- 
rials in an acre of soil, of six inches depth, we add 
the following analysis and estimate of a soil from 
the farm of J. P. Cushing, Esq., of Watertown, 

What has been the effect on its composition as compared with 
the soil A ? What do these examples illustrate ? On what then 
does the fertility of the soil mostly depend ? What effect is pro- 
duced on these ingredients by cultivation ? What is the only 
remedy for this ? What does the next table exhibit ? 



35.219 do. 


do. 


34.494 do. 


do. 


4.311 do. 


do. 


26.733 do. 


do. 


54.329 do. 


do. 


39.678 do. 


do. 



96 ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. 

Mass., made by Dr. C. T. Jackson. The soil ori- 
ginated principally from granite rocks, and has been 
kept in a good state of cultivation. 

Insoluble silicates, 664.045 tons per acre. 

Alumina, 

Peroxide of iron and manganese, 

Phosphate and crenate of lime, 

Soluble vegetable matter, 

Insoluble do. do. 

Water, 

Specific gravity of the soil, 1.277 do. water being 1 

1 cubic foot weighed 79.181 pounds. 

The potash in the above is included in the insolu- 
ble silicates and alumina. 



Sect. 2. Analysis of Vegetables. 

It has already been stated, that all vegetable sub- 
stances are composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon 
and nitrogen, with small quantities of silica, alumi- 
na, oxide of iron, magnesia, manganese, lime, soda, 
potash, sulphur, phosphorus and ammonia. 

The first three of these substances form the prin- 
cipal part of the bulk of all plants. Nitrogen is also 
found in all, or in some parts of all, but in much less 
quantity than either of the other three. These four 
constituents, combined in various proportions, form 
all the proximate elements — such as vegetable acids, 
alkalies, gum, starch, gluten, &c. But as the sup- 
ply of these constituents from the atmosphere and 
water is inexhaustible, a knowledge of the precise 

By whom was the table made ? From what did the soil origi- 
nate, and what is its present condition ? Of what are all vege- 
table substances composed? Which of these form the principal 
bulk of plants ? Is nitrogen found in all ? What do these four 
constituents form ? Why is not a precise knowledge of the pro- 
portions in which these substances exist in different plants practi- 
cally important ? 



ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. 97 

proportions in which they exist in different plants is 
of very little practical importance. 

The same may be said of the silica and alumina ; 
but not so with the remaining inorganic ingredients 
which we have named. It will be seen by our anal- 
ysis of soils, that they exist in comparatively small 
quantities, even in the most fertile specimens, and 
hence they soon become exhausted by frequent crop- 
ping. They do not all, however, enter equally into 
the composition of each species of plant, and there- 
fore it becomes important to the agriculturist to know 
the usual composition of each species, that he may 
adopt a judicious succession or rotation of crops. 
By this means, he may prevent the soil from being 
exhausted of the same ingredients every year, with- 
out allowing time for their renewal from the coarser 
gravel, stones, &c, by the ordinary disintegrating 
agents. 



MODE OF ANALYSIS. 

The vegetable substance to be analyzed should 
first be thoroughly dried, at a temperature just be- 
low that necessary to scorch white paper. It should 
then be weighed and placed in a crucible heated 
sufficiently to burn it completely to ash ; or, in other 
words, to expel all the organic constituents. Weigh 
the ash, and the loss by burning will show the quan- 
tity of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen which 
the specimen contained ; and the ash will contain 

Why is the proportion of mineral ingredients much more im- 
portant ? Do all the inorganic or mineral ingredients enter equally 
into the composition of all plants ? What is the first step in the 
analysis of vegetable substances ? How do you expel the or- 
ganic ingredients of the substance to be analyzed ? How do 
you ascertain the quantity of all these ? Of what is the ash 
composed ? 



98 ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. 

the inorganic ingredients in the form of salts : i. e., 
combined with some acid. 

One hundred grains of this should be taken, and 
boiled in two ounces of distilled water. The whole 
should then be thrown on a filter, and washed with 
distilled water until it passes through clear and taste- 
less. The contents of the filter must be thoroughly 
dried and weighed again. The loss will indicate the 
quantity of soluble salts of potash and soda in the 
100 grains of ash. The contents of the filter may 
now be placed in a glass flask, and boiled in two 
drachms of muriatic acid, diluted with two ounces 
of distilled water. Then treat it in all respects as 
we have detailed in the process for analyzing soils ; 
beginning with the addition of muriatic acid in that 
process. The presence of carbonic acid will be 
shown by the effervescence which follows the addi- 
tion of the muriatic acid. But the precise quantity 
of this, or of the sulphuric or phosphoric acids, it is 
not material for the practical agriculturist to deter- 
mine. 

The summing up of an analysis of vegetable sub- 
stances may be stated as follows :— 



per cent. 



1 Organic matter, (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon 
and nitrogen,) " 

2 Inorganic matter (ash,) " 

One hundred parts of the ash contain — 

1 Soluble salts of potash and soda, " per cent. 

2 Oxide of iron and alumina, 

3 Salts of lime, 

4 Salts of magnesia, 

5 Oxide of manganese, 

6 Silex and silicates, 



How can you determine the quantity of soluble salts contained 
in the ash ? How may the remainder of the process be con- 
ducted ? How will you know whether carbonic acid is present ? 



ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. 



99 



The following tables have been collected with 
much care, and show the composition of the various 
grains, grasses, roots, &c, of the farm : — 

1. ANALYSIS OF WHEAT. 

Thus 100 lbs. of wheat, of wheat straw, 

yield of organic elements, 98.82 lbs. 96.49 lbs. 

" ash, 1.18 " 3.51 " 

100 grs. of the ash of wheat, of wheat straw, 

contain of potash and soda, 37.72 grs. 1 .42 grs. 

" lime, 1.93 " 7.12 « 

" magnesia, 9.60 " 0.91 " 

" oxide of iron, 1.36 " " 

" sulphuric acid, 0.17 " 1.05 " 

" phosphoric acid, 49. 32 " 4.84 " 

" silica, 81.77 " 



2. ANALYSIS OF INDIAN CORN. 



100 lbs. of Indian corn, 

contain organic ingredients, 99.05 lbs. 
" ash, 0.95 " 

100 grs. of the ash contain in the 
corn, 
potash, 
lime, 

magnesia, 
phosphoric acid, 
sulphuric acid, 
silica, 
alumina, 

3. — ANALYSIS OF THE OAT. 

100 lbs. of oats, 

contain of organic elements,97.42 lbs. I 
ash, 2,58 " 



20.87 


grs. 


9.72 


u 


5.76 


« 


18.80 


a 


trace. 




39.00 


grs. 


trace. 





corn stalks, 

97.44 lbs. 

2.56 " 

corn stalks, 

24.00 grs. 
5.02 " 
0.08 " 
2.00 " 
1.05 " 

50.01 " 
16.04 " 



oat stTaw, 

94.26 lbs. 

5.74 " 



What do the following tables show ? Which yields the great- 
est proportion of ash, wheat or wheat straw ? Of what is the 
ash of wheat principally composed ? What is the most promi- 
nent ingredient in the ash of wheat straw ? How much ash will 
100 lbs. of Indian corn yield ? How much will 100 lbs. of corn 
stalks ? What are the three most important ingredients in the 
ash of corn ? What marked difference is there in the composi- 
tion of the ash of wheat, and that of corn ? How much ash 
will 100 lbs. of oats vield ? How much 100 lbs. of oat straw? 



100 



ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. 



100 grs. of the ash contain, of 

potash and soda, 19.12 grs. 

lime, 10.41 " 
magnesia, 9.98 " 

oxide of iron, 5.08 " 

oxide of manganese, 1.25 " 

phosphoric acid, 46.26 " 

sulphuric acid, " 

silica, 3.07 " 



15.1 

263 
0.40 



0.17 

1.37 

79.93 



8 grs. 



100 lbs. of 



4. ANALYSIS OF BEANS. 

beans, 



contain of organic elements 97.86 lbs. 
" ash, 2.14 " 

100 grains of the ash contain, 
potash and soda, 39.42 grs. 

lime, 4.10 " 

magnesia, 7.04 " 

sulphuric acid, trace, 

phosphoric acid, 46.75 " 

silica, 1.00 " 



bean straw, 

96.88 lbs. 

3.12 " 



54.50 

19.87 

6.69 

1.09 

7.27 
7.05 



grs- 



5. — ANALYSIS OF RYE. 

100 lbs. of rye, 

contain of organic elements97.70 lbs. 
ash, 2.30 « 

100 grs. of the ash contain of 



potash, 


32.76 grs. 


soda, 


4.45 " 


lime, 


2.92 " 


magnesia, 


10.13 " 


oxide of iron, 


0.82 " 


phosphoric acid, 


47.29 " 


sulphuric acid, 


1.46 " 


silica, 


0.17 " 



of rye straw, 

96.40 lbs. 

3.60 " 

17.19 grs. 

____ (< 

9.06 « 

2.41 " 

1.36 « 

3.82 " 

0.83 " 

64.50 " 



What are the three most prominent ingredients in the ash of 
oats ? How do they compare in quantity with the same ingredi- 
ents in the ash of wheat ? Which yields the greatest proportion 
of ash, beans or bean straw ? What marked difference is there 
in the composition of bean straw and oat straw ? Which yields 
the largest proportion of ash, wheat or rye ? What are the three 
principal ingredients in the ash of rye ? 



ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. 



101 



6. ANALYSIS OF POTATOES. 



10Q lbs. of 


potatoes, 


of potato vines 


contain of organic elements 97.40 lbs. 


95.21 lbs. 


" ash, 


2.60 " 


4.79 " 


100 grs. of the ash contain, 




of potash and soda, 


48.50 grs. 


2.80 grs. 


lime and magnesia, 


14.19 " 


20.30 ' ; 


phosphoric acid, 


36.31 " 


10.10 " 


sulphuric acid, 


0.50 " 


2.00 " 


eilica, 


a 


63.40 " 


7. ANALYSIS OF TUB NIPS. 


100 lbs. of 


turnips, 


of turnip-tops, 


contain of organic elements 92.40 lbs. 


97.04 lbs. 


ash, 


7.60 " 


2.96 « 


100 grs. of the ash contain, of 




potash and soda, 


44.60 grs. 




lime and magnesia, 


11.30 " 




phosphoric acid, 


37.00 " 




sulphuric acid, 


1.70 " 




silica, 


_____ K 





8. — ANALYSIS OF GRASSES. 



The following table will show the composition 
and quantity of ingredients in 1000 pounds of hay 
from 





Eye Grass. 


Red Clover. 


White < 


Clover. 


Lucerne. 


Potash, 


9 lbs. 


20 lbs. 


31 


lbs. 


13A lbs. 


Soda, 


4 " 


5] " 


6 


u 


6~ 


Lime, 


7 " 


28 


23i 


(t 


48 " 


Magnesia, 


1 " 


3 


3 


a 


3_ " 


Oxide of iron, 


trace. 


trace. 


i 

2 


u 


1 " 
3| « 


Silica, 


28 " 


4 


15 


a 


Sulphuric acid, 


31 " 


4 2 " 


3_ 


u 


4 


Phosphoric acid, 


l cc 
4 


6~_ " 


5" 


a 


13 


Chlorine, 


trace. 


3_ " 


2 


a 


3 



How large a proportion of potash and soda is there in the ash 
of potatoes ? How much in the ash of potato vines ? What 
does the ash of turnips closely resemble in its composition ? 
Which yields the largest proportion of ash, turnips or potatoes ? 
How much potash is there in 1000 pounds of rye grass ? How 
much in the same quantity of red clover ? How much in white 
clover ? Which of the grasses contain the largest proportion of 
lime ? Which the largest proportion of silica ? 



102 



ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. 



9. ANALYSIS OF 


RICE. 




Clean commercial rice gave by burning, of 


organic ingredients, 


99.51 per cent. 


ash, 


49 " 


100 grains of this ash gave, of 




phosphate of lime, 


76.20 grs. 


phosphate of potash, 


5.00 " 


silica, 


20.00 " 


sulphate of potash, 


trace. 


chloride of potassium, 


trace. 


carbonate of lime, 


trace. 


carbonate of magnesia, 


trace. 


Rice chaff, 


straw, 


contain of organic ingredients86.33 per 


cent. 1 87.58 per cent 


ash, 13.67 


1 12.42 " 


100 grs. of ash contain, of 




phosphate of lime, 


1.00 grs. 1 1.90 gra 


carbonate of lime, 


22 " 2.00 " 


phosphate, "1 


■ 




cfe of ^ sh > 


1.13 " 


2.56 " 


carbonate, J 






oxide of iron and manganese, 


02 " 


10 « 


silica, 


97.55 " 


84.75 " 


potash combined with silica, 


a 


8.69 " 


10. ANALYSIS OF COTTON. 


The following table shows the composition of cot- 


ton wool and cotton seeds from 


Santee : — 


cotton wool, 


cotton seeds, 


organic ingredients, 99.08 per cent. | 96.15 percent. 


ash, 0.92 


} 3.85 


100 grs. of ash contain, of 




potash, 31.09 grs. 




19.40 grs. 


lime, 17.05 " 




29.79 " 


magnesia, 3.26 " 




trace. 


phosphoric acid, 12.30 " 




45.35 " 


sulphuric acid, 1.12 " 




1.16 " 


chlorine, trace. 




trace. 



How much ash will 100 lbs. of clean commercial rice yield ? 
What are the three principal ingredients in this ash ? How 
large a proportion of ash can be obtained from rice chaff or 
straw ? How large a proportion of silica is contained in the ash 
of rice straw ? What are the three principal ingredients in the 
ash of the cotton plant ? 



ANALYSIS OF 


VEGETABLES. 1 


11. — ANALYSIS 


OF 


THE YAM 




The yam or sweet potato contains 


Of 




organic ingredients, 






98.91 per cent 


ash, 






1.09 " 


100 grs. of ash contain, of 








potash, 






43.59 grs. 


lime, 






10.12 " 


magnesia, 






3.80 " 


phosphoric acid, 






11.08 " 


sulphuric acid, 






31.90 " 


chlorine, 






2.18 " 


potassium, 






2.42 « 



103 



The above tables Nos. 9, 10, 11 and 12, showing 
the composition of rice, cotton, and the yam or sweet 
potato, are derived from an analysis made by Chas. 
U. Shepard, M. D., Professor in the Medical Col- 
lege of South Carolina. The remaining ones have 
been gathered from the agricultural writings of Prof. 
J. F. W. Johnson, and from the American Quarter- 
ly Journal of Agriculture — except Nos. 5, 6 and 7, 
and the corn-stalks in No. 2, which were furnished 
from the laboratory of the author. 

It will be seen that nearly the same ingredients 
enter into the composition of all the vegetables, but 
in very variable proportions. Thus, while wheat 
contains 1.18 pounds of mineral ingredients in every 
100 pounds of the grain, of which 37 per cent, is 
potash and 49 per cent, phosphoric acid, the same 
quantity of corn contains only 0.95 of a pound of 
mineral ingredients, of which only 20 per cent, is 
potash, and 18 or 19 per cent, phosphoric acid. 
Hence 100 pounds of wheat robs the soil of nearly 

What is the principal difference between the composition of the 
yam or sweet potato and the common Irish potato ? To whom 
are we indebted for tables number 9, 10, 11, and 12? From 
what sources have the remaining tables been obtained ? In what 
respect do the ingredients of vegetable substances vary ? How 
much more phosphoric acid and potash is there in 100 lbs. of 
wheat than in 100 lbs. of corn ? 



104 ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. 

as much potash, and more phosphoric acid than 200 
pounds of corn. 

Again, in the grasses, we find in every 1000 lbs. 
of rye grass, 53 pounds of mineral ingredients, of 
which 9 pounds are potash, and only 1-4 pound of 
phosphoric acid ; while in the same quantity of white 
clover we have 89 1-2 pounds of mineral ingredients, 
of which 31 pounds are potash and 5 pounds phos- 
phoric acid. Hence one ton of white clover would 
take from the soil more than three times as much 
potash, and twenty times as much phosphoric acid, 
as one ton of rye grass. 

These facts explain why two or three crops of one 
kind may be taken from the same soil, with less ap- 
parent effect than one crop of another kind. To this, 
however, we shall recur again, when speaking of the 
rotation of crops. 

The reader will doubtless find many discrepancies 
between the analyses, as given in the several tables, 
and others made and published by other chem- 
ists. This difference, however, is not owing to errors 
in the analyses, but to the fact, now abundantly 
proved, that the specimens analyzed grew on differ- 
ent soils. For instance, Prof. Norton, in a late num- 
ber of the Amer. Jour, of Science and Arts, gives 
the amount of ash contained in two specimens of 
oat chaff. The first, which was grown on a " poor 
mossy soil," gave only 7.23 per cent, of ash ; while 
another, of the same variety of oats, grown on a dif- 
ferent soil, gave 16.53 per cent. 

But this does not invalidate the truth, or diminish 
the importance, of the conclusions drawn from com- 
paring the composition of different species of grain. 
It only renders it necessary that, in making such 

How do you explain why two or three crops of one kind of 
grain may be taken from the soil with less apparent injury than 
one of another kind ? Does the composition of plants vary with 
the soil on which they grow ? 



AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE. 105 

comparisons, we take care that the several species 
analyzed are taken from the same soil. Otherwise 
the comparison would not be a fair one. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Practical Agriculture and Horticulture, 

A perusal of the foregoing pages will lead to the 
following general conclusions, viz : 

A. That the only means of acquiring an exac* 
knowledge of the composition of both soils and veg 
etables, consists in chemical analysis. And when- 
ever any soil proves unproductive, an analysis will 
show the cause, and of course the proper remedy. 

B. Five substances are necessary in every culti- 
vatable soil, viz : silica, alumina, lime, potash, and 
humus or vegetable matter. And it is made much 
better by the addition of a small quantity of magne- 
sia, oxides of iron and manganese, sulphur and phos- 
phorus. Perhaps the best proportions in which these 
substances can be combined for all purposes are as 
follows : — Silica 70 parts, alumina 10, lime 3, oxide 
of iron and manganese 4, vegetable matter 8, phos- 
phoric acid 2, potash 2, magnesia 0.5, and soda 0.5. 

C. The fertility of every soil depends on the state 
of its ingredients, as well as their quantity and pro- 
portion. Thus the finer the mineral ingredients are 
reduced and the more soluble the vegetable, the more 
productive will be the soil. 

What does this render necessary in making comparisons? Of 
what does chapter 8th treat ? What is the only means of acquir- 
ing an exact knowledge of the composition of soils and vegeta- 
bles ? How many substances are necessary in every cultivatable 
soil ? Can you name them ? The addition of what substances 
will make it still better ? On what does the fertility of every soil 
depend ? In what ratio will the soil be productive ? 



106 GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 

D. All those substances which our soils require to 
insure a high degree of fertility, are within the reach 
of every farmer. And hence no excuse can be ren- 
dered for barren fields or unproductive farms. 

The object of the present chapter will be to give a 
brief account of the germination of seeds ; assimila- 
tion or nourishment of plants, with the influence of 
heat, light and electricity ; a particular description 
of the various grains and grasses, with their mode of 
culture ; rotation of crops ; connection of farm stock 
with vegetation ; and the propagation of plants, fruit 
trees, &c, by seeds, eyes, cuttings, graftings, and 
budding. 

Sect. 1. Germination of Seeds. 

All seeds contain a principle of life or vitality. 
And though that principle may remain dormant a 
long time when the seeds are fully ripe and kept 
dry, yet whenever they are exposed to a certain de- 
gree of heat and moisture, with access of air, that 
life is stimulated into activity, and the seed is said to 
sprout or germinate. 

Every seed is made up of a radicle, which strikes 
downward to form the root ; a plumula, which 
shoots upward to form the stem ; and, with few ex- 
ceptions, a cotyledon or cotyledons, which form the 
first leaf or leaves of the growing plant. 

Three conditions are necessary for the germina- 
tion of seeds, viz : a temperature of 60° Fahrenheit or 

What is within the reach of every farmer ? What do all seeds 
contain? Under what circumstances does the principle of life 
remain dormant or inactive ? When does it become active ? 
What is this activity or sprouting called ? Of how many parts 
are seeds composed, and what are they called ? Do all seeds 
possess cotyledons ? From what part of the seed is the root de- 
rived ? How many conditions are necessary for the germination 
of seeds, and what are they ? 



GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 107 

over; a certain degree of moisture, or, in other 
words, the presence of water ; and the free access of 
atmospheric air. Hence all soils designed for the re- 
ception of seeds should be fine, light and porous, so 
as to admit the requisite quantity of air and moist- 
ure ; and the temperature should be at least 60°. If 
the soil is too dry, the vitality of the seed will re- 
main dormant ; or if moisture] is present, and the 
air is excluded, or the temperature is too low, it will 
decay and be lost. 

But when all these conditions are fulfilled, the 
seed first absorbs water and swells or increases in 
bulk ; oxygen is absorbed from the air or decom- 
posed water ; this unites with the carbon in the seed, 
and forms carbonic acid. The starch in the seed is 
converted into sugar, and the gluten or principles of 
the seed which contain nitrogen, is converted into a 
substance peculiar to germinating seeds or young 
shoots, called diastase. While these changes are 
going on, the swelling of the seed bursts its outward 
covering ; the radicle extends itself downward into 
the soil, while the plumula rises upward, and sooner 
or later appears above the surface. 

Thus far the germ is supported solely by the nu- 
tritious matter contained in the seed itself, with the 
addition, perhaps, of oxygen from the air or water. 
But as soon as the tender radicle or root has struck 
into the soil, it begins to absorb the soluble vegeta- 
ble products and salts which are there contained ; 

In what condition then should the soil be when fitted for the re- 
ception of seed ? If the soil be too dry, what will be the effect 1 
What if the air be excluded or the temperature too low ? What 
is the first change that takes place in the germination of seeds ? 
What simple substance is absorbed ? What becomes of the 
starch in the seed ? What becomes of the gluten, or parts con- 
taining nitrogen ? While all these changes are going on, what 
else takes place ? How has the germ been thus far supported ? 
What takes place after the radicle or root has extended itself into 
the soil, and the leaf or leaves opened into the air ? 



108 GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 

and the first leaf or leaves that expand commence 
the work of absorbing carbonic acid from the air, 
and assimilating its carbon, while the oxygen is 
emitted again free. In this way the plant continues 
to be nourished until it attains its full growth and 
perfection, receiving most of its carbon and nitrogen 
from the carbonic acid and ammonia of the atmo- 
sphere ; and its water, with salts and inorganic sub- 
stances, from the soil.* 

If it is asked by what agency these substances 
are absorbed by the roots and leaves 1 we answer, 
first, by the laws of imbibition, aided doubtless by 
the electric currents which are established by the 
roots and the different ingredients of the soil. The 
leaves and roots, as well as the stems of all plants, 
are porous. And it is a well-known law, that all 
porous or spongy bodies readily absorb or imbibe 
liquids; and that such absorption is greatly facilitated 
by the development of electric currents in the ab- 
sorbing substance. The process has been called En- 
dosmose, by the French chemists. 

The silex of the soil is a negative electric when 
compared with alumina, lime, magnesia, &c, which 

* The much disputed question, whether the carbonic acid and 
ammonia is absorbed directly by the leaves, or is carried by rains, 
&c, down into the soil, and there absorbed by the roots, and from 
thence transferred through the plant to the leaves, to be decom- 
posed and appropriated for nourishment, we shall not attempt to 
settle at present, it being of very little practical importance. 

Is the question whether plants absorb the carbonic acid and 
ammonia directly from the air through their leaves, or only from 
the soil through their roots, well settled ? Is it a matter of much 
practical importance ? By what agency does absorption take 
place in the roots and leaves of plants? What parts of plants 
are porous ? What is a well-known law of porous bodies when 
in contact with liquids ? What effect has electricity on absorp- 
tion ? What is the process of absorption or imbibition called by 
the French ? In what electrical state is silex when compared 
with alumina and other mineral ingredients of the soil ? 



GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 109 

are positive. Hence the presence of roots and other 
vegetable matter generating- acids, would be contin- 
ually developing electricity in the soil, and thereby 
powerfully aiding the absorption and circulation of 
fluids in plants. Indeed, some have attempted to 
explain all the phenomena of vegetation, through 
the agency of this subtle fluid. But when we re- 
member that all the experiments hitherto performed 
have not even formed one of the proximate elements 
of plants, and much less a single living vegetable, 
without a seed or scion to grow U from, we shall be 
compelled to call in the aid of the principle of life 
or vitality as a power superior to the ordinary chem- 
ical forces. 

It is by this principle, and this alone, that we can 
explain how the seed which may have lain dormant 
for months or years, starts forth into active life on 
exposure to a certain degree of heat and moisture ; 
and still more, how this life is maintained, with an 
annual increase of the size and height of the plant, 
for half a century or more, in despite of all the pow- 
ers of gravitation, heat, cold, winds, rain, &c. It 
is by means of this vital power, aided by the influ- 
ence of electricity, heat and light, that the plant is 
enabled to select from the heterogeneous or mixed 
ingredients of the earth and atmosphere, and assim- 
ilate or appropriate to itself only those materials 
proper for its nourishment, while all others are 
rejected. The fact that such selection takes place, is 
itself proof* of the existence and controlling power of 
such a principle. 



How have some attempted to explain all the phenomena of 
vegetation? What agency must we admit in the process, supe- 
rior to the ordinary chemical forces ? What enables the plant 
to select only those ingredients fitted for its own nourishment ? 
What docs the fact that such selection takes place, pro^e ? 
6 



110 GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 

Plants, like animals, not only select and absorb 
through their roots and leaves the substances needed 
for their growth, but they at the same time cast off 
through the same organs whatever matters may 
have become useless or hurtful in them. Hence the 
roots of all plants are found to reject a considerable 
quantity of carbonaceous matter, while the leaves 
emit still larger quantities of oxygen and watery va- 
por. But as with animals, so with plants ; the same 
substances which have been thrown out and reject- 
ed by the roots of one species, are taken up and ap- 
propriated by those of another. Hence, in part, the 
great utility of rotation or frequent change of crops 
on the same soil. 

We might here enter upon a minute description 
of the spongelets, cells and internal structure of 
plants, called vegetable anatomy and physiology or 
biology ; but it would serve to perplex the mind of 
the scholar rather than advance him in practical 
knowledge. This interesting branch of the study 
is more appropriate for the mind already matured 
and trained to close and patient thought. 

We may state, however, that every vegetable, 
plant, shrub or tree, is made up of the bark or outer 
covering of the stem ; the cuticle or covering of the 
soft parts, as the leaves, blossoms, &c. ; the liber or 
inner bark, a substance intermediate between the 
bark and woody fibre ; the woody fibre or solid part ; 
and the pith or medullary matter. All these parts 
are made up of cells, or vesicles, or spongelets of 
various forms and sizes, so arranged as to leave 

What substances are emitted or thrown off by the leaves 
and roots of plants 7 Do the roots of all species of plants ab- 
sorb and reject the same substances ? What does this show in 
regard to the propriety of a change or rotation of crops ? What 
are the several parts that make up the whole of a living plant or 
tree ? What are all these parts made up of? How are the cells 
or spongelets arranged ? 



INFLUENCE OF CALORIC. Ill 

small spaces between them, through which the fluid 
substances taken up by the roots pass up to the 
branches and leaves, and which are called canals, 
tubes or vessels. There are also canals or vessels 
extending horizontally from the liber or inner bark 
to the pith. These are called medullary vessels or 
tubes. 

The bark and cuticle are filled with pores, espe- 
cially the latter, where it covers the under surface 
of the leaves. So numerous are these pores or open- 
ings in some places on the cuticle of plants, that 
they exist to the extent of more than 100,000 on one 
square inch of surface. It is chiefly through these 
that the transpiration of watery vapor takes place. 

The growth of plants takes place by the addition 
of layers between the liber and the wood, called in 
its forming state alburnum. Hence, whenever wood 
is cut across horizontally, it presents the appearance 
of concentric layers. 

Sect. 2. Influence of Caloric, Light and Electricity. 

CALORIC 

It will be remembered that one of the properties 
of caloric is to expand all bodies within its influ- 
ence ; and hence its tendency is to expand the cells, 
tubes and pores of plants, and thereby facilitate 
their absorption, circulation and transpiration. It 

What are those spaces through which the fluids pass, called ? 
In what other directions are canals or vessels found ? What are 
they called ? What parts do we find filled with pores ? How 
numerous are these pores on some parts of the cuticle ? What 
passes through these pores ? How do plants grow ? Why does 
wood present the appearance of concentric layers when cut 
across horizontally ? What effect does caloric have on the pores, 
cells, &c, of plants ? What effect does this have on their ab- 
sorption and circulation ? 



112 GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 

will also be remembered, that latent caloric exists in 
all bodies, which is rendered free by every increase 
in their density. Hence, when gases and liquids 
are absorbed and converted into solid substances, 
large quantities of latent heat are set free ; which is 
counteracted by the transpiration of gases and watery 
vapor. 

Again, the kind of vegetables natural or peculiar 
to any region, seems to be regulated mainly by the 
temperature of such region. Thus, we never find 
barley or potatoes more than 80° north from the 
equator, and wheat not more than 64° ; while, on 
the other hand, these same grains will not grow 
where the climate is too warm. The southern limit 
for the kinds of grain mentioned, is about 20° north 
of the equator. 

The same variations of temperature limit the cul- 
tivation of grain and other vegetables on mountains. 
Thus, in the latitude of the Alps, wheat ceases to 
grow at the height of 3,400 feet ; oats at 3,500feet ; 
rye at 4,600 ; barley at 4,800. These lines of tem- 
perature do not follow the parallels of latitude on 
tbe earth's surface, but they vary with the varying 
geographical aspect of the country. Hence the same 
temperature, and consequently the same vegetation, 
is found several degrees farther north in some coun- 
tries than in others. Tbis is well illustrated by com- 
paring the climate and vegetation of France with 
those of New-York and Pennsylvania. 

What takes place when gases and liquids are converted into 
solid substances? How is the accumulation of caloric from this 
cause counteracted ? What seems to regulate the kind of vege- 
tables natural to any given region of the earth ? Within what 
degrees or parallels of latitude will wheat grow? At what height 
does wheat cease to grow on mountains ? Do the lines of tem- 
perature follow the parallels of latitude ? What effect does this 
have on the vegetation of different countries in the same latitude ? 



INFLUENCE OF LIGHT. 113 



LIGHT. 

This agent, also, exerts a strong influence on 
vegetation, as is proved by daily observation. 
Those vegetables which grow in the shade are 
always pale and feeble when compared with those 
that receive the direct rays of the sun. Not only 
is the plant changed in color by the light, but also 
in taste and all other sensible qualities. And so 
strong is their affinity for light, that the leaves of 
some plants seem to follow the sun in its daily 
course. 

The most important influence of light on vegeta- 
tion, is its agency in enabling the leaves to decom- 
pose the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and 
assimilate its carbon, while its oxygen is set free. 
Hence it exerts a direct and controlling influence 
over the process of nutrition. This is well illustra- 
ted by the appearance of vegetables grown in dark 
cellars. These facts should warn the agriculturist 
not to sow or plant his crops too thick or near 
together ; as in all such cases the shaded state of the 
lower leaves prevents the full effect of the sun's rays 
on them, and consequently interferes with their nu- 
trition and growth. 

Whether the influence of light on vegetation is 
owing to the heating, or coloring, or chemical rays, 
or all combined, is still a matter of uncertainty. 
According to the observations of Prof. Draper, of 
New- York, the greatest influence is exerted by the 
yellow part of the colored ray. 

Does light have any influence on vegetation ? What is the 
difference between plants grown in the dark, and those fully ex- 
posed to the sun ? What is the most important influence of light 
on vegetation ? How is the effect of light on the nutrition of 
vegetables familiarly illustrated ? What is the effect of allowing 
crops to stand too thick on the ground ? Is it positively known 
whether the effect of light on vegetation is owing to one only, or 
all parts of the ray ? What was the result of Prof. Draper's ob- 
servations ? 



114 GERMINATION OF SEEDS, 



ELECTRICITY. 



The influence which electricity exerts over the 
absorption and circulation of fluids or sap, in vege- 
tables, we have already alluded to. It has long 
been known that the passage of electric or galvanic 
currents through the soil containing the roots of 
plants, would make them grow very rapidly ; but, 
until recently, no means have been devised for ren- 
dering this knowledge available to the farmer. 

The first attempts to apply it on a large scale were 
made in our country in 1843-4, by William Ross, 
who planted potatoes on the 6th day of May, 1843, 
and by the aid of electricity exhibited new potatoes 
at the meeting of the New-York Farmers' Club on 
the 2d of July following, two and a half inches in 
diameter ; while others planted at the same time, 
and in the same field, were not larger than peas. 

His mode of applying this agent, was to place at 
one end of his rows of potatoes a plate of zinc, and 
at the other a plate of copper, both being buried 
two inches below the surface of the soil, and con- 
nected together by a wire passing through the 
atmosphere. By this means a current of electricity 
was made to pass through the soil and roots of plants 
from one plate to another. More recently, many 
experiments have been performed, and not a few 
startling reports circulated through the agricultural 
papers concerning the application of atmospheric 
electricity on a large scale to agricultural purposes. 
But we believe a large majority of these experiments 
have been total failures. 



What influence do electric or galvanic currents exert on the 
growth of vegetables ? Who first attempted to apply electric 
currents directly to field crops, and when ? What was his mode 
of applying this agent ? Can we place much reliance on the re- 
ports recently made, through the papers, on this subject ? 



CULTIVATION OF GRAINS. 115 

Indeed, knowing- the conducting- power of moist 
earth, and the tendency of electricity to diffuse 
itself, we do not perceive how any of the plans yet 
proposed can be rendered effectual to any consider- 
able extent. The method adopted by Ross is un- 
doubtedly the best ; but the plates must be of con- 
siderable size, and the rows not too long. The mode 
in which electricity influences vegetation is, doubt- 
less, by simply increasing the rapidity of the ab- 
sorption and circulation of the sap, and consequently 
of the nutrition, in the same manner that electric 
currents facilitate capillary attraction in simple 
porous bodies. 

Sect. 3. Description of particular Grains, Grasses, 
4rc, with their Mode of Culture. 

The cultivation of the various grains and grasses 
constitutes the chief business of the agriculturist. 
Of these, wheat, rye, oats, Indian corn or maize, 
barley, Duck wheat, potatoes, turnips, beets, peas 
and beans, together with timothy grass and clover, 
are the most important in all the Middle, Western, 
Northern and Eastern States ; while in the Southern 
and South-western part of the Union the culture of 
cotton, tobacco, and the sugar cane, is of prime im- 
portance. Hence we shall give a short account of 
each, in the order in which they are named. 

WHEAT. 

Two species of wheat are cultivated in this coun- 
try, the Triticum Hybernum or winter wheat, and 

Why cannot electricity or galvanism be made practically use- 
ful to the farmer by direct application to his crops ? In what 
mode does electricity probably influence vegetation ? What con- 
stitutes the^chief business of the agriculturist ? Which are the 
most important of these ? What is of the most importance in 
the Southern and South-western States ? How many species of 
wheat are cultivated in this country ? 



116 [ CULTIVATION OF GRAINS. 

the Triticum iEstivuui or summer wheat. The 
first, or winter wheat, requires to be sown in the 
autumn, and is not ready for harvest until the fol- 
lowing July or August ; while the summer wheat 
is sown early in the spring and harvested in August 
following. The winter wheat, which is the species 
chiefly cultivated, contains many varieties ; but 
they may all be reduced to two classes, the dark 
colored or flint wheat, and the white or thin 
skinned. The latter flourishes best in warm, dry 
soils, and warm climates ; while the former is best 
adapted to colder climates, and will endure a moist 
and heavy soil. 

This kind of grain requires for its full perfection 
a large proportion of nitrogen, phosphates, and 
salts of potash. Hence the soil designed for its cul- 
tivation should be well drained, and thoroughly, 
deeply, and finely ploughed, to render it light and 
porous, that it may readily absorb moisture and gases 
from the air. It should also contain a large propor- 
tion of clay and lime ; otherwise free and frequent 
manuring with marl, lime and ash, mixed with 
muck or stable manure, will be necessary ; or, 
what is much better, fine compost or i>arn-cellar 
manure, fully impregnated with urine. 

The addition of muck or ordinary barn-yard 
manure, without the aid of ammonia, lime, ash, 

What are they called ? At what seasons of the year must 
they be sown ? Whieh species is principally cultivated ? What 
are the two principal varieties of this species ? Which variety 
flourishes best in cold climates ? Which on moist and heavy 
Foils ? What ingredients does wheat require in abundance for its 
full perfection ? Why should the soil designed for the cultivation 
of wheat be drained, and deeply and finely ploughed ? If it does 
not contain a large proportion of clay and lime, what substances 
should be frequently added as manure ? Or what would be bet- 
ter than these ? What effect would the addition of muck or or- 
dinary barn-yard manure, without the ammonia, lime, urine, &c, 
have on the crop? 



WHEAT. 117 

&c, or these same substances dissolved in water in 
the form of urine, will do little else than furnish 
carbon for an abundant growth of straw ; but it will 
lack the requisite strength and firmness, be more 
liable to rust, and the heads will not be more than 
half filled, and the berry small. 

The best wheat lands are those originally derived 
from argillacious slate or shale, mixed with more or 
less limestone, and well supplied with decaying 
vegetable matter ; the whole being converted by 
cultivation into a deep, rich and porous loam. But 
no soil, however fertile in its natural composition, 
will bear long continued cultivation for the same 
crop, without becoming exhausted of some of its 
essential ingredients. 

If we turn to the composition of wheat and 
wheat straw, we shall see that nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, potash, lime and magnesia, enter largely into 
their composition, and hence these first become ex- 
hausted from the soil. Indeed, every ton of wheat 
removes from the soil at least twenty pounds of 
these substances, independent of the nitrogen, which 
constitutes so large a share of the gluten in the 
grain itself. Consequently every judicious farmer 
will aim to restore, in some form, an equal quantity 
of these substances back to the soil from which he 
has taken them. 

But having already detailed, in the chapter on 
Inorganic and Organic Manures, the mode of pre- 
paring and applying all these substances, we will 
only repeat here the important truth, that in apply- 

From what are the best wheat lands originally derived ? Will 
any soil bear long continued cultivation for the same crop with- 
out becoming exhausted ? In the cultivation of wheat, of what 
ingredients does the soil become exhausted first ? How much of 
these substances does every ton of wheat remove from the soil ? 
What then will every judicious farmer do ? What must guide us 
in the applicationof manure for wheat or any other crop ? 
6* 



118 CULTIVATION OF GRAINS. 

ing manure we must in all cases be guided by the 
composition of the soil and the particular crop we 
wish to grow from it ; and further, that the applica- 
tion of all inorganic manures, as lime, potash, soda, 
&c, will fail to produce their characteristic beneficial 
effects, unless the soil to which they are applied 
contains a sufficient quantity of decaying vegetable 
matter, on which they may act. 

Hence, however desirable it may be occasionally 
to let a field lie in summer-fallow with an applica- 
tion of fifty or sixty bushels of air-slacked lime, or 
fifteen or twenty of unleached ash to the acre, yet 
we think experience will teach wheat-growers, as 
well as all others, that the cheapest, richest and 
most abundant source of both organic and inorganic 
manure is found in a mixture of the barn-yard litter, 
the solid and liquid excretions of farm stock, with a 
few bushels of lime, burned bones, plaster and ash, 
all well mixed and secured from the washing of 
rain, until spread over the ground just before the 
last ploughing preparatory for the seed. The great 
advantages of such a mixture, consist not only in 
the fact that it contains all the salts as well as car- 
bon which the growing plants require, but the urine 
or liquid excretion holding the most important salts 
in solution, presents them in the most favorable con- 
dition for absorbtion by the roots of vegetables. 

The ground being well prepared, the best time 
for sowing winter wheat is the last of September or 
first of October. Sown thus early, it gains a length 
of root and expansion of leaf, that renders it much 

When will the application of inorganic manures fail to pro- 
duce benefit ? How much air-slacked lime or unleached ash may 
be applied per acre on summer-fallow for wheat ? What will ex- 
perience yet prove to be the cheapest, richest, and most abundant 
source of both organic and inorganic materials for manure ? In 
what do the great advantages of such a mixture consist? What 
is the best time for sowino- winter wbent ? Whv ? 



DISEASES OF WHEAT. 119 

less liable to be thrown out and killed by the frosts 
of winter, and it gains an earlier start in the spring. 
Sown at this time, one and a half bushels of seed 
are sufficient for the acre ; but if not sown till later 
in the autumn, two bushels should be used. 

Spring or summer wheat requires the same pre- 
paration of soils, and two bushels of seed to the acre 
— sown as early as the soil is dry enough in the 
spring. 

When properly cultivated, wheat yields from 25 
to 50 bushels per acre, and is one of the most valua- 
ble crops in the Middle and Western States. Al- 
though, owing to the very great neglect of manures, 
and particularly to liquid manure or urine, the aver- 
age product of wheat in the United States does not 
probably exceed sixteen or eighteen bushels per 
acre, yet the total product of the present year is es- 
timated at not less than 125,000,000 of bushels. 

DISEASES OF WHEAT. 

The principal diseases to which wheat is liable, 
are, rust, which consists in reddish powder, cover- 
ing the stalk, and preventing its farther growth, 
and hence causing' the grain to shrivel, or fail of 
reaching maturity ; mildew or blight, which con- 
sists in a fungous growth from the stalk, resembling 
mould, and producing nearly the same effects as rust; 
and smut, which is a disease of the berry or ker- 
nel itself. 



How much will then suffice for an acre ? If not sown until late 
in autumn, how much should be used ? When should spring 
wheat be sown, and how much seed per acre ? How much of 
wheat may be obtained per acre by proper cultivation ? How 
much is now the average produce per acre in the United States ? 
What are the principal diseases of wheat ? What is meant by 
rust } What bv mildew or blight ? What bv smut? 



120 CULTIVATION OF GRAINS. 

The first two of these occur most frequently in the 
latter part of July, or during the first days of August, 
during very warm weather and frequent showers of 
rain, or very heavy dews. There are no known 
remedies to be depended on ; but we would suggest 
whether much could not be done by rightly propor- 
tioning the organic or carbonaceous matter and the 
mineral ingredients in the soil, so that the straw 
shall not grow too rank and juicy for its firmness, as 
is generally the case where soluble carbonaceous 
matter exists in excess relatively to the salts or min- 
eral ingredients, which give firmness and strength 
particularly to the outer covering of the straw. 

The smut is a black morbid growth in the berry, 
which renders the flour black and unwholesome. It 
is said to be effectually prevented by soaking the 
seed in strong brine, sprinkling it with slacked lime 
while wet, and leaving to dry twenty-four hours be- 
fore sowing. We should not be willing, however, 
to vouch for the infallibility of this remedy, though 
doubtless often successful. Beside these diseases, 
wheat is liable to be much injured by the Hessian- 
fly, the wire-worm, and the grain insect. But for 
an account of all these, we refer to Chapter First of 
the Appendix. 



RYE. 

The Secale Cereale, or rye, has long been culti- 
vated for food, and is, in many of the colder parts 
of the temperate zone, one of the most profitable 

When do the first two of these most frequently occur ? Under 
what circumstances do they generally occur ? Are there any 
certain remedies ? How might the composition of the soil be 
made to act as a preventive ? What is meant by smut in wheat ? 
How is it said to be prevented ? Is this remedy infallible ? What 
else is wheat liable to be injured by ? What is the name of rye ? 
In what parts of the earth is rye a profitable crop ? For what is 
it used? # 



RYE. INDIAN CORN. 121 

crops of the farmer. It is generally sown in Sep- 
tember, and is ready for harvest the last of the fol- 
lowing July or first of August. Little more than 
one bushel of seed should be sown on an acre. 

All we have said in regard to the preparation of 
the soil for wheat is equally applicable to this crop, 
although rye will yield a profitable harvest from a 
much more sandy soil, and in a colder climate than 
is required for wheat. It is subject to fewer diseases 
and less liable to injury by insects than the former 
grain. 

Almost the only disease to which it is liable, is the 
Secale Cornutum, or smut, which consists in a black 
or grayish fungous growth of the berry. This is 
sometimes very prevalent in the crop, and if not 
separated from the grain before grinding, not only 
injures the looks of the flour, but renders it posi- 
tively unwholesome for food. Proper draining and 
ploughing of the soil, together with the same mode 
of preparing the seed as mentioned for wheat, would 
doubtless almost entirely prevent [the growth of this 
substance. With judicious cultivation, rye yields 
from 30 to 60 bushels per acre, and is worth from 
50 to 75 cents per bushel. 

ZEA MAIZE, OR INDIAN CORN. 

This is a native of this country, and was unknown 
until after the discovery of America. Since that im- 

At what time of the year is it generally sown ? At what time 
is it ready for harvest ? How much seed is required per acre ? 
How should the soil be prepared for this crop ? Under what cir- 
cumstances may we get a profitable crop of rye and not of 
wheat ? Is it as liable to injury from diseases and insects as 
wheat ? What is the principal disease to which it is liable ? Of 
what does this disease consist ? What effect does it have on 
the flour when not separated before grinding ? What would prob- 
ably prevent this disease ? How much rye may be grown on an 
acre ? Whot is the proper name of Indian corn ? 



122 CULTIVATION OF GRAINS. 

portant event, it has been cultivated extensively as 
an article of food in many parts of the world. It 
flourishes best in a light sandy loam, containing a 
good supply of vegetable matter and phosphatic 
salts. It is, perhaps, more than almost any other 
crop, benefited by thorough ploughing and free ap- 
plication of vegetable and animal manure, mixed 
with some of the salts of lime, particularly the phos- 
phate and sulphate. It should be planted in rows, 
at least three feet apart, and not more than four or 
five kernels in a hill. The manure may either be 
spread broadcast on the field, before the last plough- 
ing, or a small shovel full placed in each hill. If 
none of the salts of lime are mixed with the manure, 
a spoonful of sulphate of lime (plaster) or of burned 
and pulverized bones, should be applied on each hill 
about the time of the first hoeing. 

Corn should be planted as early in May as the 
soil can be prepared properly, and have the young 
shoots escape the frosts, and well hoed two or three 
times during the season. It will make its appear- 
ance earlier, and be more vigorous, if the seed is 
soaked in a strong solution of muriate of ammonia, 
(sal ammoniae,) or chloride of sodium, (common 
salt,) twenty-four hours before planting. In select- 
ing corn for seed, those ears only should be chosen 
that are well filled out, and from stalks that contain 
at least two sound ears. 

The best mode of harvesting, is to cut up the 
stalks at the bottom, as soon as the kernels become 

Of what country is the zea maize a native ? When was it first 
known ? What is its use ? On what soil does it flourish best ? 
What kind of ploughing and manure particularly benefit this crop? 
How should it be planted ? How may the manure be applied ? 
When no lime is mixed with the manure, what should be added 
to the hills, and at what time ? When should corn be planted ? 
How many times should it be hoed ? What may be done to the 
seeds before planting with benefit? What precautions should 
be taken in selecting corn for seed ? Wh:it is the best mode of 
harvesting* ? 



OATS. 123 

hard, and place them together in bunches or shocks 
until dry. In this way the crop can be earlier re- 
moved from the field. It requires less labor, and 
saves much more of the stalks and husks for cattle- 
feed the succeeding winter. All heavy, wet soils 
are unfavorable for the cultivation of corn. And 
it will be readily seen, by turning to the table show- 
ing its composition, that it cannot flourish well in 
any soil that is not well supplied with phosphoric 
acid, potash and lime. 

This crop is much exposed to injury from the wire- 
worm, which generally attacks it as soon as it rises 
a few inches above the soil. For an account of this 
and other worms injurious to the farmers' crops, see 
the chapter on that subject. 

With good soil, and proper cultivation, 100 bush- 
els of corn may be grown on a single acre. But 
owing to neglect, and ignorance of the best modes 
of preparing and applying manures, the average 
yield in this country does not probably exceed 30 or 
35 bushels per acre. 

OATS. 

The Avena Sativa, or oats, are cultivated exten- 
sively in most parts of the world, as food both for 
man and animals. They constitute one of the most 
certain and profitable crops of the farm, growing on 
almost any cultivatable soil, and yielding from 30 to 
80 bushels per acre. Less ploughing and less manure 

Why is it the best ? What soils are unfavorable for the culti- 
vation of corn ? From what is this crop liable to injury ? How 
much corn may be grown on an acre ? How much is probably 
the average yield in this country ? To what is this owing ? 
What is the name of oats ? Where, and for what is it extensively 
cultivated ? What does the avena sativa constitute ? What is 
the ordinary yield per acre ? On what soils may it be cultivated 
with profit ? 



124 CULTIVATION OF GRAINS. 

are required for this than for either of those species 
of grain to which we have already alluded. 

But though oats are capable of yielding a reason- 
able harvest with less expenditure of labor and 
manure than most other kinds of grain, yet none 
are capable of greater improvement, or will better 
repay the application of such means. They should 
be sown in the latter part of April, or as early as 
the soil can be prepared after it becomes dry in the 
spring. Two bushels of seed should be applied to 
the acre. This crop is seldom injured by insects or 
worms. 

BARLEY. 

The Hordeum Vulgare, or barley, is used exten- 
sively as an article of food, and for the manufacture 
of malt and spirituous liquors. It requires a richer 
and better cultivated soil than oats, and yields an 
average of 30 bushels per acre. It is chiefly culti- 
vated in the temperate zone. It is generally more 
certain to yield a good crop when sown after pota- 
toes or turnips. It should be sown at the same 
time as oats, and requires three bushels of seed to 
the acre. 

BUCKWHEAT. 

This grain is also much cultivated in some coun- 
tries for food, and in favorable seasons is a very 

Is it as susceptible of improvement by the application of labor 
and manure as the other species of grain ? When should the 
seed be sown ? How much seed is required per acre ? Is this 
crop often injured by insects or worms ? What is the common 
name of the hordeum vulgare ? For what is barley used ? What 
soil does it require as compared with the oat ? In what part of 
the earth is it chiefly cultivated ? How much is the average 
yield per acre ? How much seed should be sown per acre ? 
For what i^ buckwheat cultivated ? 



BUCKWHEAT PEAS BEANS. 125 

profitable crop. It flourishes well on any ordinary 
soil, and yields from 30 to 50 bushels per acre. It 
should be sown in the latter part of June or first of 
July. It is very liable to injury from variations in 
the season, and is therefore a very uncertain crop in 
our climate. If turned under with the plough, when 
the plant is in blossom, it forms an excellent green 
manure for fertilizing the soil preparatory to the 
growth of wheat or other crops. It is more liable to 
injury from excessive warm weather during the 
formative or soft state of the kernel, than from any 
other cause. Hence it is sown late, that the great- 
est heat of summer may pass before the grain ar- 
rives at the period when it is liable to injury from 
that source. 

PEAS. 

When cultivated as a field crop, peas should be 
sown early in the spring, on a light, dry soil. They 
are much cultivated, both in the garden and the 
field, and are much esteemed as food for man and 
animals. The seed will germinate quicker and more 
certainly if soaked in water, or a solution of salts, a 
few hours before sowing. 

BEANS. 

There are many varieties of the bean , which are cul- 
tivated like the pea, both in the garden and the field. 
They are planted in hills like corn, and afford to the 

On what soils does it flourish ? How much will it yield per 
acre ? When should it be sown ? What makes it an uncertain 
crop ? How may it be made a valuable fertilizer for the growth 
of wheat or other crops ? From what is it most liable to injury ? 
Why is it generally sown late ? When the pea is cultivated as 
a field crop, at what time should it be sown ? How is the pea 
cultivated and for what purpose ? How may the seed be made to 
germinate quicker ? Is there more than one variety of the bean ? 
How are they cultivated ? 



126 ROOT CROPS. 

farmer a very valuable crop, because they may be 
grown abundantly on fallow grounds and places too 
much exhausted for other kinds of grain. They are 
best adapted, however, to a light, gravelly soil ; and 
the middling-sized white variety is most esteemed. 
They may be planted at any time' during the month 
of May, or even as late as the first week in June. 
Four or five seeds should be planted in a hill, and, 
like corn, they should be hoed two or three times 
during the season, to keep the soil loose or porous 
and free from weeds and grass. Perhaps no crop is 
more benefited by the application of sulphate of 
lime or plaster than this. It should be applied to the 
hills at the time of the first hoeing, at the rate of one 
table-spoonful to a hill. 

ROOT CROPS. 

POTATOES. 

The Solanum Tuberosum, or potato, is probably 
the most valuable of all roots, and is cultivated ex- 
tensively in almost all civilized countries, as food for 
man and animals. Like many other cultivated 
crops, there have been formed several varieties, 
some of which grow wild in some of the mountain- 
ous districts of South America. They flourish best 
in a light sandy loam, well supplied with vegetable 
matter; although they yield a fair crop on almost 
any well cultivated soil, especially when turned over 

On what soils may they be grown abundantly ? What soils 
are best adapted for their cultivation ? What variety is most es- 
teemed ? When may they be planted? How much seed should 
be put in a hill, and how often do they require hoeing ? What 
substance is particularly beneficial to this crop ? How should it 
be applied and in what quantity ? What is the name of the po- 
tato ? Which is the most valuable of all the root crops ? For 
what is it used ? Where does it grow wild ? In what soil do 
thev flourish best ? 



POTATOES. 127 

as green sward. They are much benefited by well- 
prepared manure, thoroughly mixed with the soil 
before planting. 

The best mode of preparing the seed for planting, 
is to cut off the seed end, or that part of the potato 
in which the eyes are thickest, and planting two of 
these ends in a hill, leaving the rest to feed to the 
farm stock. The hills should be planted in rows, 
three feet apart, and the seed covered from three to 
five inches deep, according to the moisture of the 
soil. 

Potatoes, like corn, require ploughing and hoeing 
two or three times during the season, to keep the 
soil loose and free from weeds and grass. When 
the crop has come to maturity, the tops become dead 
and dry. As soon as this takes place, the potatoes 
should be dug and placed in cellars, or in pits large 
enough to contain from 25 to 50 bushels, and cover- 
ed with straw, over which dirt must be thrown thick 
enough to protect them against the frosts of winter. 
A very small hole, however, should be left at the 
top for the ingress or egress of air. 

Potatoes will yield from 100 to 400 bushels per 
acre, and generally sell for two or three shillings 
per bushel. They may also be propagated by plant- 
ing the seeds, which are borne on the tops of the 
vines. 

The yam, or sweet potato, flourishes best in the 
southern part of our country, and, indeed, in all 
warm latitudes ; but will not come to maturity in the 

By what are they much benefited ? What is the best mode of 
preparing the seed for planting ? How should they be planted ? 
When should they be dug? How should they be preserved? 
Why should a small opening be left at the top of the heap ? 
How much may generally be obtained per acre ? How else may 
the potato be propagated ? Where does the yam or sweet potato 
flourish ? Will it come to maturity in the Northern States ? 



128 ROOT CROPS. 

Northern States without great care. There is nothing- 
peculiar, however, in its cultivation. 

Diseases. — The potato has usually been regarded 
as one of the most certain crops of the farm, and one 
the least liable to diseases ; but for three or four 
years past this crop has been almost entirely destroy- 
ed in this and the adjoining States, by a disease 
which kills the vines before the potatoes come to 
maturity, and causes them to decay very rapidly. 

The nature of this disease is still a subject of con- 
troversy. Some contend that it is caused by an in- 
sect, which deposits its larvae or eggs on the vines 
about the first of August, and which soon forms a 
maggot or worm, that penetrates the vine, sever- 
ing the vessels that circulate the sap or juice of the 
plant, thereby cutting off its nourishment, and caus- 
ing the leaves to assume at first a shriveled or crisp- 
ed appearance, and then to become entirely dead. 
And some observations would seem to show that the 
worm penetrates even into the potato itself. 

Others have attributed it to a kind of rust or fun- 
gus, somewhat similar to the rust in wheat. And 
others again have promulgated the theory that this 
useful vegetable is about to disappear and be lost, 
from a natural tendency to decay. The truth is, the 
nature of the disease, as well as an effectual remedy, 
is still a problem. The only remedy which we have 
seen represented as effectual, is the placing of a lit- 
tle lime in the hills, or sowing it on the vines about 
the time they are in blossom. We have no doubt 
that the efficacy of the lime would be much increas- 
ed by mixing it with salt, in the proportion of two 

Is there anything peculiar in its cultivation ? What has hap- 
pened to the potato crop during the last few years ? Is the na- 
ture of the disease well known ? To what has it been attributed ? 
Is there any known remedy to be relied on ? What has been 
represented as effectual by some ? How might its efficacy be in- 
creased ? 



TURNIPS. 129 

parts of lime to one of salt, and applying it in the 

failll. 

TURNIPS. 

The cultivation of turnips as a field crop is of re- 
cent date, and is regarded by many as marking an 
important era in the progress of agriculture. There 
are several varieties cultivated, the most important 
of which are the yellow, the white, and the ruta 
baga, or Swedish turnips. The last of these yields 
the most bountiful crop, and is the principal variety 
cultivated in the field. They will not thrive on a 
wet or very clayey soil. 

The turnip derives much of its nourishment 
through its large and juicy leaves, and its root pen- 
etrating the soil to a considerable depth divides and 
loosens it in such a manner as to leave it in a very 
favorable condition for the succeeding crop. The 
best mode of preparing the soil, is to manure it well 
with good vegetable and animal manure ; plough it 
deeply and very fine, and sow the seed in rows two 
and a half feet apart. Half a pound of good plump 
seeds to the acre will produce plants enough if they 
germinate well. But it is safer to add more seed, 
and if the plants appear too thick, pull them out. 
They require frequent hoeing to keep the soil light 
and free from weeds. 

From 500 to 1000 bushels of ruta bagas may be 
obtained from a single acre, and the ground on 

Has the turnip been long cultivated as a field crop ? Is it re- 
garded as of much importance ? Which are the most important 
varieties cultivated? Which yield the most bountiful crop? 
On what soil will they not thrive ? Through what parts does the 
turnip derive much of its nourishment? Why does the turnip 
leave the soil in a favorable condition for other crops ? What is 
the best mode of preparing the soil for this crop ? How much 
seed should be applied to the acre ? How should the seed be 
sown ? What do the plants require? How much may be ob- 
tained from an acre ? In what condition is the soil left ? 



130 ROOT CROPS. 

which they grow be better prepared for a good crop 
of wheat, or other grain, than before the turnips 
were sown. They are of great value as food for 
farm stock, and may be sliced raw and fed in the 
same manner as potatoes, a little salt being sprinkled 
on each mess. 

The time of sowing the seed is between the 25th 
of June and the 15th of July. The turnips should 
be gathered before any severe injury by frosts, the 
tops and tap-roots cut off, and the turnips stored in 
cellars, or pits three or four feet wide, and well cov- 
ered with straw and earth, in the same manner as 
directed for potatoes. The white and yellow varie- 
ties may be cultivated in the same manner as the 
ruta baga ; but they* are less productive, and less 
valuable for food. 

When the turnip plant is very young and tender 
it is very liable to injury by insects. This may be 
prevented in a great measure, by scattering over and 
around the young plants a mixture of air-slacked 
lime and salt or ash, being careful not to apply so 
much as to kill the plants themselves. See chapter 
on insects. 

BEETS. 

Several varieties of this excellent root have long 
been cultivated. The mangel wurtzel is the largest 
and most productive variety, and the only one cul- 
tivated extensively for food in this country, as a field 
crop. The soil and mode of cultivating this crop 

For what are they valuable, and how should they be fed ? 
What is the usual time of sowing the seed ? When should they 
be gathered, and how kept ? From what are turnip plants liable 
to injury? How may injury from this source be prevented? 
What caution is necessary ? Is there more than one variety of 
the beet ? Which is the largest and most productive ? In what 
respect does the cultivation of the mangel wurtzel differ from the 
ruta baga ? 



CARROTS, PARSNIPS AND ARTICHOKES. 131 

may be the same as that recommended for the ruta 
baga. The beet, however, requires a richer soil, and 
the ploughing- must be at least twelve or sixteen 
inches deep and very fine. This variety of beet 
generally yields nearly the same per acre as the ruta 
baga, and may be gathered and preserved in the 
same way. They are chiefly used for feeding farm 
stock. 

The turnip and blood beets are chiefly cultivated 
in gardens for culinary use. The white, or sugar 
beet, is extensively cultivated in some countries, not 
only as food, but for the sugar which it contains. 
France has nearly supplied herself with sugar from 
this kind of beet, during the last few years. It is 
now cultivated to some extent in our country, and is 
a very valuable crop, yielding nearly as much per 
acre as the mangel wurtzel. The sugar beet requires 
a good soil, well manured, and cultivated in the 
same manner with other beets. 

All varieties of the beet should be sown one month 
earlier than turnips. When used for making sugar, 
the juice is pressed out and boiled until crystalliza- 
tion begins to show itself, and then cooled in cakes 
and clarified, or rendered white and pure in the same 
manner as other varieties of sugar. 

CARROTS, PARSNIPS AND ARTICHOKES. 

These are also among the root crops that have 
long been cultivated in gardens, and which might 

Which requires the richest soil ? For what purpose is this variety 
of beet chiefly raised ? What varieties are cultivated in gardens, 
and for what purpose ? For what is the sugar beet cultivated 
extensively in some countries ? In what country has this been 
done to a very great extent ? Is it cultivated for the same pur- 
pose in this country ? Does its mode of culture differ from the 
other varieties of the beet ? At what time should all the varie- 
ties of beet seed be sown ? In what way is sugar obtained from 
the beet ? What other root crops might be profitably cultivated 
in the field ? 



132 GRASSES AND CLOVER. 

be sometimes profitably extended to the field. But 
their mode of culture and use so nearly resembles 
that of the turnip, that a separate description is not 
necessary. 

With the exception of the potato, the cultivation 
of roots has received far too little attention by agri- 
culturists in this country. They are not only 
among the most valuable crops for food, but they 
form a most important link in every judicious system 
of rotation adopted for the improvement of soils. 
Their mode of culture necessarily pulverizes the soil 
to a considerable depth, which, together with the 
manure that is generally added, leaves it in excellent 
order for a succeeding crop of wheat, corn or rye. 

GRASSES AND CLOVER. 

The various grasses constitute the principal food 
for farm stock, and hence, in all cold countries, their 
cultivation is of the first importance. The varieties 
of grass are very numerous, and much difference 
exists in regard to their relative value. Some kinds 
are better adapted to some soils than others. Hence 
particular attention should always be paid to the 
selection of seed, and the kind appropriate to the 
particular soil to which it is to be applied. The va- 
rieties most valued in this country are timothy or 
herds grass, red-top, tall oat grass, and clover. 

TIMOTHY OR HERDS GRASS. 

This is a hardy perennial species, growing abun- 
dantly in temperate climates, and very luxriantly on 

Why is a separate description of their mode of culture, &c, 
unnecessary ? Why are root crops particularly valuable in every 
system of farming ? What do the various grasses constitute ? 
In what countries is their cultivation important 2 Is there much 
difference in the relative value of different varieties ? What are 
the varieties most valued in this country ? What are the char- 
acteristics of timothy or herds grass ? 



RED-TOP AND OAT GRASS* 133 

almost all our soils. It is the principal grass relied 
on for hay in all the Northern and Middle States. 
It flourishes best on moist, loamy soils. The best 
time for cutting it, is soon after the flowering season, 
and while the seed is soft, or " in the milk." When 
cut at this season, it exhausts the soil much less 
than if the seed is allowed to ripen, and is equally 
good or better for hay. It should be cured by 
spreading it in the sun until wilted, and then allow- 
ing it to stand in bunches over night. 

To obtain seed, the grass must be allowed to fully 
ripen, and then the tops may be cut with a sickle 
or cradle ten or twelve inches down. This must 
be dried in the sun, and bound up and threshed like 
grain. The bottom part may still be mown and 
saved for hay. Four or five pounds of seed should 
be sown on an acre, either with winter grain in the 
fall, or with spring grain early in the spring. The 
seed should be covered with a light brush harrow. 

RED-TOP. 

This species of grass is a native in the Middle and 
Southern States, and is very valuable both for mea- 
dows and pasture. It grows very luxuriantly on 
low wet lands, and is found in most meadows mixed 
with herds grass. Its cultivation is in all respects 
similar to that described for the latter variety of grass. 

TALL OAT GRASS. 

This variety of grass has hitherto received but 

What variety is principally relied on for hay in all the Northern 
and Middle States ? On what soils does it flourish best ? What 
is the best time for cutting it ? Why ? How should it be 
•cured ? How can the seed be obtained ? How much seed is 
required per acre ? When may it be sown ? Where is the red- 
top a native ? For what is it valuable ? On what soils does it 
grow most luxuriantly ? Has the tall oat grass received much 
attention in this country ? 
7 



134 GRASSES AND CLOVEK. 

little attention in this country ; but it is considered 
by Mr. Taylor, and some others, as the best of all 
the cultivated grasses. It grows very rapidly, and 
ripens early. Hence it is well adapted for pasture. 
Six pecks of the seed may be sown on an acre of 
grain crops in the spring. It grows best on moist 
clay soils. 

CLOVER. 

Only two kinds of clover are cultivated to any- 
considerable extent in this country — the common red 
clover, and the cow grass or short clover, which 
ripens earlier and allows of two crops in one season. 
Besides these, the white clover, which is found 
abundantly in pasture lands, is a very valuable 
variety, and should receive more attention. 

Clover is better adapted to light, sandy and dry 
soils, than any other variety of grass. On such 
soils its roots often penetrate to a great depth, and 
produce a very abundant crop, without much ex- 
hausting the inorganic ingredients of the soil. 
Hence its great value as a preparatory crop for 
wheat and other grain. 

The best time for sowing is early in the springs 
with either winter or spring grain. From six to ten 
pounds of seed should be sown on an acre. It 
should be cut for hay when in full blossom, and 
wilted in the sun, then gathered into cocks or 
bunches, and allowed to stand one or two days. 

How is it considered by Mr. Taylor ? What are its advan- 
tages? How much seed "should be sown per acre, and when ? 
On what soils does it grow best ? How many kinds of clover are 
cultivated in this country ? What is the difference between 
them ? What kind of clover is found in pasture lands ? What 
kind of grass is best adapted to light, sandy soils ? Why is it 
valuable as a preparatory crop for wheat and other grain ? What 
is the best time for sowing the seed ? How much is required 
per acre ? When should clover be cut for hay ? And how 
should it be cured ? 



135 

After this, they should be opened freely to the sun 
again for a few hours, and then gathered into the 
barn. It will be much benefited by sprinkling a few 
pounds of salt in the mow. 

Clover cut while in blossom, makes better hay, 
and exhausts the soil much less than if allowed to 
stand until fully ripe ; but being a biennial plant, 
it soon gives place to other varieties of grass in 
meadows. The best seed is obtained from the 
second growth, which ripens about the first of Sep- 
tember. Sulphate of lime, or plaster, is an excel- 
lent manure for this crop, and should never be 
neglected. 

Such are the principal varieties of grass worthy 
of attention. The clover is chiefly cultivated as an 
improving crop, to prepare the soil for other grains. 
For this purpose it is often turned under with the 
plough while in blossom, instead of being mown for 
hay. All permanent grass fields, whether for mea- 
dow or pasture, should be annually sown over with 
lime, plaster and ash, alternately. 

Sect. 4. Rotation of Crops. 

Few things have contributed more to the improve- 
ment of agriculture than the introduction of a system 
of change or rotation of crops. The old method of 
dividing off one part of the farm for permanent 
pasture, another for meadow, and a third for con- 
tinued cultivation, was found by long and sad ex- 

What may be sprinkled through the mow or stack with bene- 
fit ? Why should clover be cut when in blossom for hay ? Why 
does it soon run out or give place to other kinds of grass ? How 
is the best seed obtained ? What constitutes an excellent manure 
for clover ? For what is clover chiefly cultivated ? How is it 
often treated ? What should be done to all permanent grass 
fields ? What is meant by rotation of crops ? What objection 
is there to letting one part of the farm remain as permanent 
meadow, another pasture, &c. ? 



136 ROTATION OF CROPS. 

perience to lead invariably to barrenness and ex- 
haustion. 

This result is produced by the continued removal 
from year to year of the same organic and inorganic 
ingredients, until they are so far exhausted that 
they will not afford the plant sufficient nourishment 
to bring it to perfection. And hence it must be al- 
lowed to lie waste or uncultivated one, two or three 
years, for the slow process of disintegration, to re- 
plenish it with these deficient materials. 

This effect is well illustrated in the older cotton 
and tobacco growing States of the South, where 
whole plantations have been exhausted from re- 
peated crops of these great staples ; and w T here 
nothing but the free application of manure, and a 
judicious system of rotation, is required to restore a 
high degree of fertility. 

Every rational system of rotation or change of 
crops is founded on the well ascertained fact, that 
different species of plants take from the soil different 
ingredients, or different quantities of the same in- 
gredients. This difference is well illustrated by the 
following table, viz : — 

Salts of Potash and Soda. Lime & Magnesia. Silica. 

Wheat straw, 9.00 per cent. 9.30 81.77 

Corn stalks, 24.00 " 8.00 50.00 

Rye straw, 18.65 " 16.52 64,50 

Oat straw, 15.18 " 3.13 79.93 

Pea straw, 27.82 " 63.74 7.81 

Potato herb, 4.20 " 59.40 36.40 

Clover, 39.20 " 56.00 4.00 

Turnips, 81.60 " 12.00 

Beetroot, 88.00 " 11.50 

Potatoes, 85.81 « 14.19 

In what sections of the country are the injurious effects of such 
a system well illustrated? What is there required to restore the 
fertility of the soil ? On what is every rational system of rota- 
tion founded ? In what crops do the salts of potash and soda pre- 
dominate ? In what the lime and magnesia ? In what the silica ? 



ROTATION OP CROPS. 137 

It will be seen by the foregoing table, that all the 
crops of the farm may be arranged into three classes. 
The first, comprehending the grains wheat, rye, 
oats, corn, barley and rice, contain silica as their 
predominating inorganic ingredient; the second, 
embracing pea straw, potato, cotton and clover, 
contain only a very small proportion of silica, and a 
large proportion of lime and magnesia; while in the 
third class, including the root crops, as turnips, 
beets, carrots, potatoes, (tubers,) there is a large pro- 
portion of potash and soda, with only a small quan- 
tity of lime and magnesia, and no silica. 

Hence it is evident that if these classes of plants 
are cultivated successively, or in rotation, on the 
same soil, each will rely in a great degree on differ- 
ent inorganic ingredients from the one which has 
preceded it ; and consequently the soil will be much 
less rapidly exhausted than if the same crop, or one 
belonging to the same class, were applied every 
year. 

What we here deduce from the composition of 
different crops, is confirmed by the experience of the 
best farmers. Thus we may take, 1st, a crop of 
potatoes and corn, applying a liberal quantity of 
good compost or barn-cellar manure ; 2d, wheat, with 
lime in some form; 3d, barley or oats, with peas; 
4th, roots, as turnips, beets, potatoes, &c, with a 
full coat of compost or barn-cellar manure and ash ; 
5th, wheat again, with clover seed if the soil is light 
and sandy, and herds grass if clayey. It should 
now remain either in meadow or pasture two or 
three yearsj with the annual addition of ash, plaster, 

How then may all the crops of the farm be divided ? What 
will be the effect of cultivating these classes successively or in 
rotation on the same soil ? With what does this rule, deduced 
from the composition of vegetables, correspond ? What particu- 
lar crops may be made to succeed each other with benefit, and in 
what manner ? 



138 ROTATION OF CROPS. 

or charcoal pulverized ; after which the same system 
of rotation may be commenced again. In the 
Southern States a crop of cotton, rice or tobacco, may 
be substituted in the place of each wheat crop. 

With such a system of rotation and manuring, 
any and every farm, instead of wearing out, will 
become more and more fertile from generation to 
generation. But it should be remembered, that the 
best system of rotation, without manure, may indeed 
retard, but can never prevent final exhaustion and 
barrenness. 

Again, a judicious rotation of crops necessarily 
implies also a rotation of fields. That is, of the 
various fields into which the farm is divided, each 
one should be used alternately for cultivation, pas- 
ture and meadow. It is often objected, that a part 
of the farm ^is too wet for cultivation, and must 
therefore remain continually for meadow or pasture ; 
and, as a necessary consequence, the rest of the 
fields must be constantly tilled. But a field too wet 
for cultivation, is also too wet for profitable grass 
land, and should therefore be drained, if practicable, 
and placed in the proper rotation. 

The truth of what has been said in the preceding 
pages in regard to the preparation of soils, manures, 
rotation of crops, &c, is generally assented to ; but 
still entirely neglected on account of its requiring 
so much expense. No more fatal error exists among 
agriculturists than this. It is true, that the mode of 
cultivation proposed would require more labor and 
expense per acre than the old mode of always 

What will be the result of such a system of manuring and 
rotation ? Will any system of rotation alone prevent exhaustion 
of the soil ? What does a judicious system of rotation of crops 
necessarily imply ? What do you mean by rotation of fields ? 
What should be done with a field too wet for cultivation ? What 
objection is generally urged against the foregoing views of farm 
cultivation ? 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 139 

ploughing the same fields as long as anything will 
grow on them, and then letting them lie barren 
until they have partially recovered. But it is equally 
true that the value of the crops will be increased in 
a two-fold greater ratio than the labor and expense. 

Thus, Mr. Young found, by actual experiment, 
that a soil which in its natural state would produce 
280 bushels of potatoes per acre, would, by the ad- 
dition of 32 cubic yards of stable manure, produce 
400 bushels per acre ; and if the same quantity of 
barn-cellar manure, which is well charged with 
urine, was used, the quantity was increased to 520 
bushels per acre — making a net increase, by the 
latter kind of manure, of 240 bushels per acre ; 
which, at 25 cents per bushel, would amount to 
sixty dollars; a sum sufficient to defray all the ex- 
pense of preparing and applying the manure for five 
acres instead of one. 

But this is not all ; for if wheat is now sown on 
this ground, after the potatoes are removed, 30 or 40 
bushels "per acre may be harvested instead of 15 or 
20, as would be the result without the previous ma- 
nuring. Indeed, but few agriculturists realize how 
much may be obtained from a given quantity of soil 
by scientific management. Hence, a few examples 
may be profitably introduced here. A well-man- 
aged farm of forty acres, near Lancaster, Pa., has 
produced in one year — 

5 acres of corn, - - 300 bushels. 

10 " wheat, - - 340 " 

5 " oats, - - 300 « 



How is the increase of labor and expense per acre doubly re- 
paid ? What did Mr. Young- find by actual experiment ? How 
much was his crop increased by the application of barn-cellar 
manure ? What other benefits resulted besides the great increase 
of the present crop ? How much corn was produced on five acres 
of a farm near Lancaster, Pa.? How much wheat per acre ? 



140 ROTATION OF CROPS, 

5 acres of rye, - - 100 bushels. 

10 « hay, - 30 tons. 

5 " pasture. 

This, at the usual market value, would amount to 
near $1000, which is at least one- third more than is 
generally taken from the same quantity of good 
land by ordinary management. 

Mr. Jenkins, of Kent, in the State of Delaware^ 
in 1837 took from thirty-eight acres of what was 
originally a very poor, light soil, the following pro- 
ducts, viz : — 

Oats, - - - 250 bushels. 

Wheat, - - - 196 « 

Corn, - - - - 325 " 

Clover hay, - 35 tons. 

Wheat and oat straw, - - 15 " 

Irish potatoes, - - 140 bushels. 

Sweet " - 15 " 

Turnips, - 40 u 

Pasture for - .4 cows. 

All this, at the prices of that year, was worth 
$1,692, equal to the interest on a capital of $20,000. 
In 1833, Mr. Hoyt, of Deerneld, Mass., averaged a 
still greater yield from three and a half acres of land. 
Again, Mr. J. J. Thomas, in his Essay on Farm 
Management, gives the following product of fifty 
acres of judiciously cultivated land, viz s — 

10 acres of wheat, 35bush. per acre, 350bustu 

5 " corn, 90 " « 450 " 

2 " potatoes, 300 " " 600 « 

What was the market value of the produce of the whole 40 
acres for one year ? What was the value of Mr. Jenkins' crop 
in 1837 from only 37 acres of land? What was the original 
character of his soil ? Who averaged a still larger yield in 1832, 
in Massachusetts ? What does Mr. J. J. Thomas give as the 
average yield of 50 acres of judiciously cultivated land ? 



[6 


u 


5 


H 


5 


a 


6 


u 


10 


a 



FARM STOCK. 141 

1 acre of ruta baga, SOObush. per acre, 800 bush, 
winter apples, 250 " " 1,500 " 
barley, 40 " W 200 « 

oats, 50 " « 250 " 

hay, 2 1-2 tons " 15 tons, 

pasture. 

The whole making a value of not less than $1,400. 
When we remember that the great difficulty of the 
farmer is to pay for his 100 or 200 acres of land, and 
reflect that 50 acres, properly managed, will produce 
more than the whole 100 cultivated in the ordinary 
way, the subject becomes one of very great im- 
portance. 

Sect. 5. Connection of Farm Stock with Vegetation. 

The observations contained in the preceding pages, 
in regard to the various kinds of manure, will sug- 
gest the close connection which exists between the 
farm stock and the farm produce. Much has been 
said about the relative merits of different breeds of 
cattle, sheep, horses, &c, but we think one impor- 
tant fact has been entirely overlooked. That is, the 
quality of any species of stock depends far more on 
the manner in which it is kept, than on the particular 
breed. For the rule, that every species of animals 
and plants degenerates by bad or scanty food, and 
severe exposure to cold and storms, and improves by 
good care and plenty of good food, will be found 
invariably true. 

Hence the true method of improving farm stock, 
is to improve the farm in such a manner as to afford 

In what aspect is this subject of great importance to the 
American farmer ? Is there any necessary connection between 
the farm stock and the farm produce ? On what does the quality 
of any species of stock principally depend ? How may any spe- 
cies of animals be degenerated or improved ? What then is the 
best method of improving farm slock ? 
7* 



142 SELECTION AND PRESERVATION OF SEEDS. 

them a variety of the best food, and good stables or 
warm shelter. To effect this, a great variety of root 
crops should be cultivated and preserved in good 
order. It is comparatively of little consequence that 
this breed or that is imported from abroad at a heavy 
expense ; for so sure as they are but half fed and 
half cared for, they will soon degenerate and be- 
come no better than our own native kinds. 

Sect. 6. Selection, Preservation and Preparation of 
Seeds ; and the Propagation of Plants by Cuttings, 
Layers, Buds, Grafts, #c, fyc. 

SELECTION AND PRESERVATION OF SEEDS. 

No one thing about the farm or garden requires 
more care than the selection of seeds ; for it is well 
known, that every variety of plants may be altered 
in their qualities, improved or degenerated, made 
earlier or later, and more or less fruitful, by a selec- 
tion of seeds. Hence a few simple rules of much 
importance may be given here. 

1st. All seeds should be allowed to ripen fully 
before they are gathered, and then all the withered 
and imperfect ones should be separated, retaining 
only such as are perfect and healthy. And these 
should be kept dry. 

2d. If it is desirable to make the plant earlier, 
those seeds only should be saved that ripen first. 
This done for two or three years in succession, will 
materially shorten the time required for the plant to 
arrive at maturity. This rule is of great importance 



What species of crops are particularly valuable for that pur- 
pose ? What will soon become of the best foreign breeds if they 
are only half fed and half cared for ? How may plants be altered 
in their qualities, or rendered earlier or later ? When should all 
seeds be gathered, and how preserved? How can a plant be 
made earlier? 



PREPARATION OF SEEDS. 143 

in cold countries, where the season of vegetation is 
short. 

3d. If we wish to make any species more fruitful, 
without reference to the time required for attaining 
maturity, the seeds should be saved only from the 
largest and most perfectly filled heads, ears or fruit. 
Thus, every farmer knows that a selection of only 
eight-rowed corn for seed, will propagate the same ; 
and so of every other variety. 

4th. The whole may be comprehended in one 
proposition, viz : that every seed tends to produce its 
own like. A knowledge of this single fact will al- 
ways enable the farmer to change, or improve, or 
multiply his species of produce almost without limit. 
But two, three or more years are required to effect a 
marked change in any respect. Hence too much 
care cannot be exhibited in the selection of seed for 
farm or garden crops. 

PREPARATION OF SEEDS. 

During the last year or two much has been said 
about the benefits to be derived from the soaking of 
seeds in various chemical or saline solutions, such as 
the nitrate, sulphate, and muriate of ammonia ; ni- 
trates of soda and potash, and in combinations of 
these. 

Indeed, so exaggerated were some of the early 
reports on this subject, that not a few were almost 
induced to believe that the mere soaking of their 

In what countries is this important ? How can any species be 
made more fruitful ? What single proposition comprehends the 
whole ? What will a knowledge of this single fact enable the 
farmer to do ? How long a time is required to effect a marked 
change in this way ? What then is requisite in the selection of 
seeds either for the farm or garden ? What has attracted much 
attention in regard to the preparation of seeds ? What sub- 
stances have been used for soaking seeds ? What was the char- 
acter of some of the early reports on this subject ? 



144 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS* 

seeds would remedy the necessity of manuring their 
soil. And we were told to continue the soaking 
from fifty to ninety hours, at a temperature of 68° 
Fahrenheit. But more extended and careful experi- 
ments have well nigh banished all these bright an- 
ticipations. 

There is no doubt, however ? that soaking of seeds 
in very dilute solutions of these salts, or in water 
alone, for twenty-four hours before planting, will 
cause them to grow quicker and more vigorously. 
And if, after being soaked, they are rolled in lime 
or plaster, the benefit will be considerably increased. 
Such treatment may also serve, in some slight de- 
gree, as a protection against worms. 

From numerous experiments, we are also induced 
to believe that thoroughly washing seed wheat in a 
solution of common salt, rolling it in plaster or lime, 
and drying it before sowing, is an effectual mode of 
preventing smut in the future crop. And if it will 
prevent the smut in wheat, we see no reason why 
the same treatment will not prove equally efficacious 
when applied to seed corn, oats, rye, &c. 

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 

The propagation of plants by cuttings, layers, 
grafting and budding, relates rather to the propaga- 
tion of fruit trees than to ordinary farm produce. 
Hence but little space will be devoted to their con- 
sideration. 

Cuttings. — This mode of propagation consists in 
simply placing a slip, or branch of the plant or tree, 
containing on it one or more buds, in a well pulver- 

What has been the effect of more careful and extended experi- 
ments ? In what, and how long may seeds be soaked with bene- 
fit ? What will much increase this benefit ? What treatment 
applied to the seeds will prevent the smut in grain ? In what ways 
may plants be propagated without using seeds ? How are plants 
propagated by cuttings ? 



GRAFTING. 145 

ized and mellow soil. Care should be taken that 
one or more buds on the slip are placed deep enough 
to be kept constantly moist. In a little time roots 
shoot out around the base of the bud, while the rest 
sends up a germ to become the future stalk, or stem. 
Slips designed for cuttings should be taken from the 
parent tree or plant either in the autumn or before 
the buds begin to swell in the spring. If they are 
taken in the autumn they must be kept from freez- 
ing, either in dry cellars, or buried in sand. 

Layers — Only differ from cuttings, in being placed 
in a different position in the soil. 

Grafting. — This is a very frequent and useful 
mode of propagating shrubs and trees. The most 
common mode is to cut off the branch or stem to be 
grafted, horizontally, split it through the centre^ 
whittle one end of the slip or scion, obtained in the 
same manner as for cuttings, into a wedge shape, 
and insert it in the split of the stem, in such a man- 
ner that the bark of the slip or scion corresponds 
precisely with the bark on the stem ; then cover the 
cut surfaces with a soft, tenacious mass, made of 
resin, bees-wax and tallow, melted together. The 
sap in the bark and liber, or alburnum of the stem, 
is carried on into the same parts of the scion or slip, 
and thus its life is maintained; it sends forth its 
leaves and branches ; and the process of nutrition 
soon unites it firmly with the main stem or trunk. 

One great advantage of this mode of propagation 
is, that fruit is obtained several years earlier than 

What should the slip or cutting contain, and how deep should it 
be planted ? From what part of the slip do the roots proceed ? At 
what time should the slips designed for cuttings be taken from 
the parent tree ? If taken in the autumn, how may they be pre- 
served until spring ? How do layers differ from cuttings ? What 
is the most common mode of grafting ? How is the life of the 
slip or scion maintained? VV hat is the principal advantage of 
this mode of propagation ? 



146 CONCLUSION. 

from the seed. There are two or three other modes 
of grafting*, but the essential object in them all, is to 
bring the bark of the scion and that on the stem 
closely in contact. And for that purpose, perhaps 
the mode which has been suggested is as convenient 
and successful as any. 

Budding. — This process consists in making an in- 
cision in the bark of the stem to be budded, in the 
shape of a capital T, loosening up the bark a little 
way from the edges of the perpendicular incision, 
so as to make a triangular space ; then take a bud, 
connected with a piece of bark in such a shape as to 
Jit the space just described, and insert, with the point 
of the bud upward. The loose edges of the bark on 
the stem overlap the edges of that attached to the 
bud, and the whole is retained in its place by a liga- 
ture or string. 

The best time for budding is, whenever the bark 
is loose so as to be easily separated from the wood. 
The explanation is the same in this process as in 
grafting. The circulation of sap is continued from 
the bark of the stem to that of the bud. And the 
method is in some respects preferable to that of 
grafting. 



CONCLUSION. 

u There is no profession," says Liebeg, " which 
can be compared in importance with that of Agri- 
culture, for to it belongs the production of food for 

Are there any other modes of grafting ? What is the essen- 
tial object in them all ? How is the process of budding generally 
performed ? What is the best time for budding ? What are the 
relative merits of grafting and budding? What great nnd im- 
portant interests depend on agriculture ? 



CONCLUSION. 147 

man and animals ; on it depends the welfare and de- 
velopment of the whole human species, the riches 
of states and all commerce. There is no other pro- 
fession in which the application of correct principles 
is productive of more beneficial results, or is of 
greater and more decided influence." A truer senti- 
ment than this was never penned by man. 

And we may add, that in no profession or em- 
ployment is scientific knowledge of more value, or 
susceptible of more ready practical application. In- 
deed, it will be seen by the reflecting mind, that al- 
most every act of the agriculturist is but the per- 
formance of an interesting chemical or scientific 
process. And hence the very prevalent idea, that a 
knowledge of reading, writing and arithmetic, is 
sufficient for a farmer, is as absurd as to suppose 
a knowledge of algebra sufficient to make a 
man a skillful physician. The great and varied 
benefits to be derived from higher scientific attain- 
ments by those engaged in the noble occupation of 
cultivating the soil, would afford a fruitful theme for 
a separate volume ; and cannot even be touched 
upon here. 

We must conclude, then, by simply expressing 
the hope, that the time is at hand when it will be 
deemed of more importance to teach the youth in our 
schools the composition of our soils and vegetables, 
and the most scientific mode of cultivating the bread 
which they eat, than simply enough of arithmetic to 
cipher out how much a few loaves would amount 
to at a shilling a loaf. 

In what profession or employment is scientific knowledge of 
more value ? Is there any way in which such knowledge is 
more directly applicable in practice ? Of what does almost every 
act of the agriculturist consist ? 



APPENDIX. 
CHAPTER I. 

INSECTS AND WORMS INJURIOUS TO VEGETATION. 

There are a great variety of insects and worms 
which occasionally infest the fruit trees and the 
crops of the farmer in such numbers as to prove very 
destructive to both. The most important of these 
are the Oecidomyia Tritici, or wheat fly ; the 
Cecidomyia Destructor, or Hessian fly ; the Curculio ? 
or Calandra Granada, or weevil; the Phaleena 
Noctua Devastator, or cut worm ; the Gortynea Zea> 
or spindle worm of corn ; Elator Lineatus, or wire 
worm ; Galeruca Vittata, or striped cucumber bug ; 
Haltica Pubescens, or cucumber flea ; Aphides, or 
plant lice ; Clisiocampa Americana, or apple tree 
caterpillar ; Phaleena Vernata, or inch worm, or 
canker worm ; Coccus Arboreum Lineatus, or bark 
louse ; Saperda Bivittata, or apple tree borer ; Car- 
pocapsa Pomonella, or apple worm ; Scolytus Pyri, 
or pear blight; Curculio Pyri, or pear weevil; 
Rhyncheenus Nenuphar, or plum weevil; iEgira 
Exitiosa, or peach borer ; and Clytus Pictus, or 
locust borer. 

The three first named commit their ravages on 



What sometimes infest the fruit trees and crops of the farm ? 
What are some of the most important of these insects ? What 
ones commit their ravages on the wheat crop ? 



150 



APPENDIX, 



the wheat crop, the six next on the corn and 
garden vegetables, and the remainder on fruit and 
fruit trees. And whether we view the remarkable 
changes which they undergo, their vast numbers, 
or the incalculable amount of property which they 
annually destroy, we find them equally objects of 
intense interest and importance ; objects which 
should engage the careful attention of every farmer 
and gardener. 

CECIDOMYIA TRITICr,* 

This insect, commonly called the wheat, fly, be- 
longs to the class of insects called Dipterous, of the 
Cecidomyia species, and may be described as fol- 
lows, viz : head, of a flattened -globular form ; eyes 
large, covering two-thirds of the whole head, of a 
deep black color, appearing, when viewed in front, 
like a broad black band around the head ; the face 
pale yellow, with two prominences on which the 
antennae are inserted. The last are of a dark brown, 
about the same length with the body, and composed 
of twelve joints in the female, with a double row of 
hairs at each joint, and twenty-four in the male. 
The palpi are pale yellow, covered with shortish 
hairs, and composed of four oval joints. The thorax, 
or chest, is of a pale yellow color, slightly tinged 
with brown on the upper surface ; of an ovate form, 
its vertical diameter much exceeding its transverse, 
as is common in this species, owing to the jutting 
down of the breast. The poisers are also yellow, 

* See Plate I. 

Which attack the corn and garden vegetables ? Which are 
some of the most important that attack the fruit and fruit-trees ? 
In what respects are they both interesting and important ? What 
is the proper name of the wheat fly ? To what class does the 
Cecidomyia Tritici belong ? Can you describe it ? How many 
joints in the antennae ? What is the color and form of the thorax ? 



PLATE I 





Fig. 1 . Cecidomyia Tritici greatly Fig. 2. The Male of Ceci* 
magnified ; and also the fly domyia Tritici. 

in its natural size. 





Fig. 3. Pupae or worms of the Fig. 4. Pupa or worm of 
wheat fly, as they appear the Cecidomyia Tritici 

on the soft wheat kernel. greatly magnified. 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 153 

oval, and their pedicels strongly notched in the 
middle of their anterior sides. The abdomen is of an 
orange-red color throughout ; scarcely equal in size 
to the thorax ; attenuated towards the tip, with two 
valvular sheaths, between which the ovipositor may 
be protruded. The wings are hyaline and colorless, 
but reflecting various colors, particularly the violet, 
when viewed in certain directions. Their margins 
are densely covered with longish hairs ; and when 
the insect is at rest, they are laid upon each other, 
horizontally, on the back of the abdomen, and reach 
about one-fourth of their length beyond it. The 
legs are long, slender, cylindrical, and of a whitish 
color. All parts of the body and limbs are clothed 
with minute, slender hairs. 

The male fly differs from the female principally 
in the much greater length of the antennae, and the 
less ovate form of the abdomen. It is also some- 
what smaller in size. The wheat fly varies in 
size from the twelfth to the sixteenth of an inch in 
length. 

Another fly, called the Cecidomyia Caliptera, is 
almost invariably found associated with the one we 
have just described. It differs from the Tritici, 
principally in having seven dark spots on each 
wing, which may be readily seen with the naked 
eye. But as its character and habits seem to be the 
same, a separate description is unnecessary. 

We may observe, however, that Dr. Fitch, in a 
late number of the American Quarterly Journal of 



What is the color of the abdomen, and what does its tip contain ? 
What is the appearance of the wings ? With what are all parts 
of the insect clothed ? How does the male fly differ from the fe- 
male ? What is usually the size of the wheat fly ? What insect 
is usually found associated with the Cecidomyia Tritici ? In what 
respect does it differ from the Tritici ? Why is not a separate 
description necessary ? What has Dr. Fitch observed in regard 
to the spots on the wings ? 



154 APPENDIX. 

Agriculture, says that the spotted winged wheat fly 
which he has examined in this country has but six 
spots instead of seven, and hence he proposes to call 
it a Cecidomyia Cerealis, instead of Caliptera. 

History of the Wheat Fly. — The insects here 
described, although well known in Europe many 
years previous, did not make their appearance in 
this country, in numbers sufficient to attract atten- 
tion, until 1828, when they began to do much injury 
to the wheat crop in the northern part of Vermont, 
and the adjoining districts of Canada. They annu- 
ally spread themselves east and west, at the rate of 
about fifteen miles each season. And they are now 
to be found, doing much injury, throughout the 
greater part of New-York and New-England. 

The fly generally appears in the month of June, 
about the time wheat is usually in blossom. It con- 
tinues only a few weeks, during which time it 
deposits its eggs, and disappears.* It may be most 
easily detected by examining the wheat field after 
sundown, or in the evening, at which period the 
insect is most lively, and often appears in immense 
swarms around the wheat-heads, depositing their 
eggs within the chaff which is to surround the future 
grain. At this time, any number of them may be 
caught by passing a small gauze net up and down 
among the heads of grain, and therein retained for 
future examination. 

* Occasionally they have been found as late as the middle of 
August. 

What does he propose calling the insect? When did these in- 
sects first attract attention in this country ? Where did they 
appear ? How fast did they spread, and in what direction ? 
Where are they to be found at present ? At what time does the 
fly usually make its appearance ? How long does it continue, 
and what does it do ? At what time may it be most easily de- 
tected ? When does it appear in great numbers ? Where does 
it deposit its eggs ? How may they be caught ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 155 

Soon after the insect makes its appearance, the 
female insinuates its long and pointed ovipositor 
within the chaff that incloses the blossom, and 
which of course must inclose the future berry or 
kernel, and deposits its minute ova, or eggs, gener- 
ally from six to ten in number, and shortly after 
dies. The eggs are oblong, cylindrical, nearly 
colorless at first, but afterwards acquiring a yellowish 
tinge ; and are hatched in little more than a week 
after they are deposited. When first hatched, the 
larva is a minute, oblong worm, nearly transparent, 
or of a whitish tinge, and without feet or hairs. As 
it increases in size it becomes an orange color, and 
moves slowly by means of a wriggling motion of its 
body. It seldom or never leaves the particular floret 
or germ where the egg was deposited until it attains 
its full size, which is about one month after hatching. 

During the period of its growth, it clusters around 
the soft germ and lives on the juices which are 
destined to nourish it, thereby causing it to remain 
shriveled, imperfect and worthless. And such are 
the numbers of these minute worms, that they some- 
times not only destroy the wheat in whole fields, but 
throughout entire sections of country many miles 
in extent. 

Thus Mr. Gorrie tells us, that in the rich alluvial 
district along the Isla, in Perth and Forfarshire, 
(Scotland,) they destroyed wheat to the value of 
more than eighty thousand pounds sterling, during 
the years 1827, '8, '9 ; and between the years 1828 

In what manner, and how many eggs does it usually deposit ? 
What then becomes of the fly ? Can you describe the eggs ? 
How long before they are hatched ? What is the appearance of 
the larva at first ? What changes take place afterward ? How 
long is it in attaining its full size ? How does it injure the grain ? 
How great is the destruction sometimes occasioned by these 
larvae or worms ? What was the loss estimated by Mr. Gorrie, 
of Scotland, in three years^- 



156 APPENDIX. 

and 1834 its ravages were so destructive in Vermont 
and Washington county in this State, as to lead to 
an almost total abandonment of the cultivation of 
wheat in that extensive section of country for several 
years. For a few years past its ravages have not 
appeared so destructive in any one section of country, 
although it seems to be still annually spreading 
westward through New-York. 

The worm attains its^ full size, which is nearly 
one-tenth of an inch, about the first of August, or a 
little before the wheat is ripe to harvest. It then 
remains dormant in the head, or falls to the ground, 
attaching itself to straws, sticks or stones on the 
surface, where it remains in the same state until the 
following spring. In this dormant state the pupa or 
worm remains of a rich orange color, and the same 
general appearance that we have already described. 
It is, however, harder and less movable, and, if 
minutely examined, will be found divided into 
twelve sections or segments of about equal length. 
Those that adhere to the heads of the wheat may be 
found, often in abundance, on the threshing-floor, 
or in the screenings of the fanning-mill. The pupa, 
chrysalis or dormant state of the worm continues 
until about]the middle of the next June, when it again 
changes into the small fly which we have described. 

Means of destroying the wheat fly , or preventing its 
ravages. — The wheat fly, like other species of the 
cecidomyia, has some natural enemies that aid the 
farmer very materially in his efforts to destroy it. 
Among these, perhaps, the yellow-bird is the most 

At what period were its ravages very great in Vermont and 
in Washington county in this State ? To what did this destruc- 
tion lead ? What has been the character of its operations during 
the last few years ? How large is the worm when of full size ? 
In what places, and how long does it remain dormant ? What is 
its color and other characteristics while in the dormant state ? 
Where may they generally be found ? When do they change into 
the fly state ? Has the wheat fly or its larvse any natural enemies ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 157 

important. This beautiful little bird is generally 
found in considerable numbers, almost constantly, 
in the wheat fields during the month of July, in 
those districts infested with this insect. It freely 
lights on the straw, just below the head, and, with 
admirable discrimination, pulls down with its bill the 
chaff that conceals the wheat worms, and picks 
them off, often leaving the berry unharmed. It is 
the operation of this bird that gives the wheat heads 
that rough and broken appearance which is often 
observed in fields infested with the wheat worm. 
There are also several parasitic insects that attack 
an4 destroy the larvae of the wheat fly. 

The artificial means of destroying this insect may 
be considered under two heads. First, its destruc- 
tion while in the pupa or dormant state ; and, second, 
the destruction of the fly before it deposits its larvae or 
eggs in the wheat heads, and the protection of the 
wheat against its action. We have already said, 
that when the wheat worm had attained its full size 
it became dormant, and sometimes fell to the ground, 
becoming there attached to straw, sticks, &c, and 
sometimes it adhered to the wheat head until it was 
gathered with it into the barn. These latter will 
always be found, after threshing, among the screen- 
ings of the fanning-mill. Hence these should 
always be examined, and if there are any considera- 
ble number of these little yellow pupae to be seen, 
the whole should be at once thrown on the fire and 
burned. But if their number is very small, they 
may be fed with the screenings to hogs or other 

Which is the most important of these ? How does the yellow- 
bird destroy the larvae ? What other enemies attack and destroy 
these larvae ? How may the artificial means of destroying- this 
insect be arranged ? In what state is the insect when attacked 
by the first class of means ? In what state when attacked by 
the second class ? Where shall we find those larvae or pupae that 
remain in the wheat heads ? How may these be destroyed ? 

8 



158 APPENDIX. 

animals ; but in no case should they be thrown into 
the barn-yard, or any other place where they can 
rest secure among straw or grass until they assume 
the fly form in the spring. 

The destruction of those that remain in the field, 
is a task of much greater difficulty. It has been 
proposed to burn over the stubble ; and if this was 
done during a very dry time after harvest, it would 
doubtless destroy the greater part of them. Still, 
there would be many left under stones, and in moist 
places, where the fire would not reach them. How- 
ever, if every farmer throughout an infested district 
would carefully destroy the screenings of his fanning- 
mill, and burn over his stubble for two or three years 
in succession, it would probably effectually destroy 
this dreaded enemy of the wheat-grower. It has 
also been suggested, that a thorough ploughing of 
the field in the autumn, after the wheat has been 
removed, would bury the pupa? so deep as to destroy 
them. 

For destroying the fly before it deposits its eggs in 
the wheat head, or for protecting the wheat against 
its depredations, many ways have been suggested. 
Some have advocated the burning of sulphur around 
the field, in such a way that the smoke should be 
diffused among the grain; others have strongly 
recommended us to sow over the field, at the time it 
was in blossom, a few bushels of lime. 

But experience has proved the inefficiency of both 
these projects. Thus, Dr. Fitch states, in an essay 
on this subject, published in the American Quarterly 
Journal of Agriculture, that the fly was seen to 
deposit her eggs as freely in a wheat head well 

What should never be done with them ? How may those that 
remain in the field be destroyed ? Is this a certain remedy ? 
What are some of the means that have been proposed for de- 
stroying the fly before it deposits its eggs ? What has experi- 
ence taught in regard to both of these project* ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 159 

covered with recently burned lime, as in those on 
which no lime had been put. Indeed, we are con- 
fident that no application can be made directly to 
the grain, of sufficient strength to prevent the action 
of this insect, without proving, at the same time, 
destructive to the grain itself. Hence we know of 
no way more likely to prove effectual than the 
one suggested by Dr. Fitch, in the paper just allu- 
ded to. 

This consists in preparing a fine gauze net, some 
six feet long and two feet deep, in such a way that 
the mouth will open two feet wide the whole length 
of the net. As soon as the fly appears about the 
wheat heads, two men should carry this net, by 
means of a cord, in such a position that the lower 
part of the open mouth shall fall a little below the 
heads of grain, and the other considerably above 
them. It should be carried in this position back and 
forth at a quick pace over the entire field. Whenever 
a halt is made, the mouth of the net should be in- 
stantly closed, and the two sides pressed together 
sufficiently firm to crush whatever insects had been 
gathered in. No doubt but two or three repetitions of 
this during the period that the insect is depositing its 
egg, would entangle millions on millions of the little 
depredators, and perhaps destroy the greater share of 
them before any considerable mischief could be done. 
We hope this suggestion will be acted on exten- 
sively during the coming season, as soon as the fly 
begins to appear, that its precise value may be as- 
certained. 

Why cannot any substance of sufficient strength to kill the fly 
be applied directly to the wheat ? What is the method proposed 
by Dr. Fitch ? In what position should the net be held ? Should 
it be carried fast or slow ? What should be done whenever a 
halt is made with the net ? How many times should this process 
be repeated during the season, in order to give it a fair trial ? 



160 APPENDIX. 



CECIDOMYIA DESTRUCTCR. 



The Hessian fly, or Cecidomyia Destructor of Say, 
first made its appearance in this country in those 
districts which had heen occupied by the Hessian or 
German soldiers during- the Revolutionary War. 
Hence the name Hessian fly. It belongs to the same 
class with the Cecidomyia Tritici, from which it dif- 
fers principally in being of a dark-brown or black 
color, instead of yellow. 

It makes its appearance in the month of May, or 
early in June, and deposits its eggs on the leaf of 
the wheat stalk. As soon as the eggs hatch, the 
minute young larvae, or worms, crawl down to the 
stalk, and become burrowed around the tender stem 
just above the first joint, where they present nearly 
the size and appearance of a flax-seed, with the head 
always downward towards the roots of the stem. 
They do not eat the stem, but suck out its juices to 
such an extent as to cause it to first turn yellow, 
and afterwards die. Hence, unless the farmer is 
constantly on the look-out, the first intimation he 
will have of the ravages of this insect, will be the 
yellow and shriveled appearance of his wheat about 
the time the heads begin to appear. 

After the larvae attain their full size, they remain 
dormant until October, when they again assume the 

* See Plate II. 



What is the proper name of the Hessian fly? When did it 
make its first appearance in this country? Why is it called 
Hessian fly ? To what class does it belong ? In what respect 
does it differ in appearance from the Cecidomyia Tritici ? When 
does it make its appearance ? Where does it deposit its eggs ? 
What becomes of the larva? when the eggs hatch ? What is the 
appearance of these larvae ? What part of the wheat plant do 
they attack ? What position do they always occupy ? How do 
they injure the wheat ? What is the first appearance of injury 
in the wheat ? What becomes of the larva? after they attain their 
full size ? How long do they remain dormant ? 



PLATE II, 





Fig. 1. Female of the Ceci- 
domyia Destructor or Hes- 
sian fly, much magnified, 



Fig. 2. Male fly of the Ce- 
cidomyia Destructor, also 
much magnified 




Fig. 3. ^ A stalk of wheat with 
three pupae or worms of 
the Hessian fly at 77, just 
above the first joint. 



Fig. 4. Pupa or worm of the 
Hessian fly, considerably 
magnified. 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 163 

active fly form, and immediately deposit their eggs 
<on the leaves of the early September sown winter 
wheat. These again become dormant during the 
winter, to make their appearance in the fly state the 
following May or June. Thus we have two genera- 
tions of this insect in one year ; the first committing 
its depredations principally on spring wheat, or that 
sown late in autumn ; while the last is equally 
destructive on that sown early in autumn. 

Means of Destroying the Hessian Fly. — The re- 
marks which we have made in regard to the destruc- 
tion of the Tritici are equally applicable to this. It 
is very probable, however, that sowing the field over 
with lime or ash, or both combined, about the time 
the insect appears, would have more effect in pre- 
venting injury from this fly than the other, on 
account of the much more open and exposed situa- 
tion of the eggs on the leaf. For the same reason, 
a much larger number of these eggs and larvae are 
destroyed by birds and parasitic insects. 

Something will also depend on the soil and the 
kind of wheat cultivated ; for the more vigorous the 
growth of the stem, and the more firm and hardy 
the kind of wheat, the less will be the impression of 
these worms upon it. Hence a proper preparation 
of the seed, and a judicious manuring of the soil, so 
as to give the wheat a quick and vigorous growth, 
is of no small importance with a view to avoid this 

When they have assumed the fly form where does this generation 
deposit its eggs ? During what season do these again remain dor- 
mant ? How many generations of this insect do we have in one 
year ? Do our means of destroying this fly differ from those appli- 
cable to the Cecidomyia Tritici ? Why will the application of 
lime, ash, &c, have more effect on the larvae of this insect than 
those of the C. Tritici ? What varieties of wheat and what 
kinds of soil are least apt to be injured by the C. Destructor ? 
What then should be done to the seed and the soil before sow- 
ing ? 



164 APPENDIX. 

insect. The destruction which is sometimes occa- 
sioned by the Hessian fly, is only equaled by that 
of its neighbor, the Tritici. 



The Wheat Weevil, Calandra Granaria, or Cur- 
culio Granaria of Linneus,is a small bug or beetle, of 
a dark-red color, furrowed wing-covers, punctured 
or spotted thorax, and long slender snout, with two 
minute antennae or feelers near its end. It does all 
its mischief to the wheat after it is threshed and 
stored in the granary, by eating into and destroying 
the berry, in the same manner as the well-known 
pea bug. This insect, or beetle, is confined almost 
exclusively to the Southern States of the Union, 
where it often proves very troublesome and inju- 
rious. 

It may be entirely destroyed, however, and all its 
mischief prevented, by kiln-drying the wheat at a 
temperature of 104° for two days, or at a higher 
temperature for a shorter time, before it is stored 
away after threshing ; and afterwards keeping it 
well ventilated and occasionally stirred. This 
troublesome little insect may be conveniently 
destroyed in seed wheat, by soaking it eight or ten 
hours in a solution of common salt or muriate of 
ammonia, then rolling it in lime, drying and sowing. 

* See Plate III, Fig. 2. 

Is the injury done by the Hessian fly often very great ? 
What is the proper name of the wheat weevil ? What is the ap- 
pearance of the Calandra Granaria ? When does it injure the 
wheat ? How does it attack the wheat. ? To what sections of the 
country is this insect confined ? Does it ever do much injury ? 
How may it be entirely destroyed ? At what temperature, and how 
long should the wheat be dried ? What is necessary after the 
wheat is stored away ? How may the bug or insect be destroyed 
in the seed wheat before sowing ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 165 

There are two other insects which feed on grain 
to such an extent as occasionally to become trouble- 
some. These are moths, which deposit their eggs 
on the berry of the grain, whether it be wheat, rye, 
oats or barley. The first of these is called the Tinea 
Granella; and its eggs, when hatched, present a 
small, soft, naked caterpillar, with sixteen legs. It 
is of a light buff color, with a red head, and about 
five-tenths of an inch long. 

The second is the Alucita Cereabella or Angoumois 
moth. It usually deposits its eggs in the heads of 
grain before harvesting. When hatched the minute 
worms or larvae penetrate the berry, feed on it until 
it attains its full size, and then remain dormant in 
its cavity until they change again into the moth. 
Both these insects, and their larvae or worms, may 
be effectually destroyed in the same manner as the 
wheat weevil. 



PHALJENA NOCTUA DEVASTATOR, OR CUT- WORM. 

This worm is the product of a moth, which prob- 
ably deposits its eggs in the latter part of summer, 
or early in the autumn, and the young larvae or 
worms enter into the ground, where they remain 
during the winter, ready to commit their depreda- 
tions in the spring. The worm, as it appears in the 
corn field or garden, is of a grayish-brown color, of 
a thick sluggish appearance, and from half an inch 
to an inch in length. It remains buried in the 

Are there any other insects injurious to the different kinds of 
grain ? Where do these deposit their eggs ? What are these 
insects called ? What is the appearance of the larvae of the 
Tinea Granella ? How do the larvae of the Alucita Cereabella 
injure the grain ? How may both these insects and their larvae 
be destroyed ? What is the name of the cut- worm ? Of what is 
it the product? When does the moth probably deposit her 
eggs ? When does the worm do most of its mischief? What \h 
the size and general appearance of the worm? 
Q* 



166 APPENDIX. 

ground during the day, but comes to the surface at 
night and feeds on the young corn, beans, cabbage, 
turnips, &c. ; cutting off the stalks even with the 
surface of the ground, and often dragging the tops 
into the dirt after them. 

These worms sometimes exist in such numbers as 
to do great mischief both in the corn-field and the 
garden. The only sure way to destroy them is to 
dig them out of the hills as soon as they commence 
their work, and kill them. This not only destroys 
the worms, but of course prevents them from chang- 
ing into the moth state, and thus puts an end to the 
generation. Placing a little salt or lime and ash in 
each hill, will serve to prevent their depredations in 
a great measure. 

It has also been thought by some, that soaking the 
seeds in saline solutions before planting would serve 
as a preventive. Our own experience, however, 
leads us to think this opinion fallacious. If it is true 
that the eggs are hatched in the autumn, and the 
larvae or worms enter the ground, ploughing about 
the time severe frosts commence would probably 
cause many of them to be destroyed. Accordingly 
we find such fields as have been ploughed late in the 
fall less liable to injury from these worms than those 
not ploughed till spring. 

GORTYNA ZEA, OR SPINDLE WORM OF CORN. 

The spindle worm is the larva of a moth called 

What are its habits ? What crops does it principally attack ? 
Does it ever do much injury ? What is the only sure way of de- 
stroying them ? Does this mode only destroy the worm itself ? 
What substances placed in the corn-hill will act as a preventive 
to some extent? What effect is produced by soaking the seed 
in saline solutions before planting ? What effect would be pro- 
duced by ploughing the ground about the time the severe frosts 
commence in autumn ? Why would this destroy the worm ? 
What is the parent moth of the spindle worm called ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 167 

Gortyna Zea, by Harris. Its injurious operations 
are confined principally to Indian corn, the stalk of 
which it attacks above the lower joint, just before 
the head or tassel begins to protrude above the large 
leaves that surround it. The worm perforates the 
stalk, sometimes almost cutting it off, and always 
causing it to wither and die. 

Its existence may be readily detected by the 
withered appearance of the upper and central leaves, 
and the perforations in the stem. On pulling open 
the stem, the worm will generally be found in its 
centre, nearly an inch in length, smooth, shining, 
pf a yellowish brown color, head nearly black, and, 
when fully grown, nearly as large round as a small 
goose quill. It moves with considerable activity 
when touched. There is no known remedy but to 
pull up the first stems affected, and burn or destroy 
them, thus preventing the worm from entering the 
moth or fly state. 

It is probable, also, that the eggs from which this 
worm proceeds are first deposited on the leaves, 
much in the same manner as the eggs of the Hessian 
fly on the wheat leaf. Hence it is very probable 
that if the exact time in which the moth appeared 
to deposit its eggs was known, some better mode of 
preventing the effects of the worm might be devised, 
by destroying the eggs before they were hatched. 

ELATOR LINEATUS, OR WIRE-WORM. 

The Elator Lineatus is the moth, or perfect insect 

To what crop is its operations mostly confined ? When and 
where does it attack the corn ? How may its existence be de- 
lected ? How and where will you find the worm ? What is its 
size and appearance ? What is the only known remedy ? 
Where are the eggs of the Gortyna Zea probably deposited ? 
at might be done if the exact time of their being deposited 
known ? What is the name of the parent moth of the wire- 
? 



168 APPENDIX. 

from whose eggs the wire-worm is produced. The 
worm itself may be readily distinguished by its deep 
brownish yellow color, with two dark spots on the 
last segment of its body. This worm sometimes 
attacks potatoes, turnips and other root crops, both in 
the garden and the field. But its principal ravages are 
in the corn field. It penetrates the stalk just below 
the surface of the ground, where sometimes half a 
dozen may be found at one time, with half or two- 
thirds of their length buried in the same stalk. 

They are much more apt to be found in those grass 
lands which have been turned over in the spring and 
planted on the sward, than in those ploughed in the 
fall. Hence we infer, that the eggs are deposited 
early in autumn, and that the young larvae or worms 
penetrate beneath the surface to avoid the frosts of 
winter. Consequently, thorough ploughing, late in 
the fall, by dislodging them from their places of 
retreat, causes far the greater share to be destroyed 
by the cold. Indeed, thorough fall ploughing is the 
most effectual remedy yet known to avoid the 
ravages of this worm. A spoonful of common salt 
in each hill of corn or potatoes, would doubtless 
destroy the wire-worm in a great measure ; but the 
difficulty with this is, to so regulate its application 
that it will not destroy the crop as well as the worm. 

GALERUCA VITTATA, OR STRIPED CUCUMBER BUG. 

This common and well-known pest of the 

How may the worm itself be distinguished ? What crops does 
this worm attack ? On what does it commit the greatest depre- 
dations ? What part of the corn stalk do they attack ? In what 
fields are they most apt to be found ? When are the eggs proba- 
bly deposited ? Where do the larvae or worms remain during the 
winter ? What is the most, effectual remedy ? Why ? What 
may be applied in the corn hill to destroy or prevent the action of 
this worm ? What danger is there in doing this ? What is the 
name of the striped cucumber bug? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 169 

gardener generally makes its appearance suddenly, 
soon after the cucumbers, melons, squashes, pump- 
kins, &c, put forth their first leaves in the spring ; 
and such are their numbers, that if not destroyed by 
the vigilant hand of the husbandman, they in a few 
days destroy almost every vestige of the first leaves 
on these vines. The young plants in consequence 
droop and die. 

The yellow -striped bug is too well known to need a 
particular description here. An almost countless 
number of remedies have been recommended as in- 
fallible safeguards against the ravages of this little 
animal. Prominent among these stand lime, plas- 
ter, ash, soot, snuff, and infusions of tobacco, 
Cayenne pepper, &c. But they have all been tried 
again and again without success. Surrounding the 
hills with small square boxes has been found more 
effectual, particularly when covered with millinet. 
But there is no remedy so certain and so cheap as the 
faithful application of the thumb and finger every 
morning, for a few successive days. 

HALTICA PUBESCENS, OR CUCUMBER FLEA. 

There are several varieties of the Haltica, of which 
the H. Pubescens and H. Striolata are the most im- 
portant. The first, like the striped bug or beetle, 
attacks the cucumber and other vines as soon as 
they are up ; while the latter is equally destruc- 
tive to the young cabbage, turnip, radish, and 

How and when does it make its appearance ? What plants 
do they attack, and to what extent do they commit injury ? What 
is their color ? What are some of the principal remedies that 
have been proposed for protecting plants against its ravages ? 
Can any of them be relied on? What has been found more 
effectual ? What is a certain remedy when faithfully applied ? 
Which are the two most important varieties of the Haltica ? 
What does the Haltica Pubescens attack ? What does the Hal- 
tica Striolata destroy ? 



170 APPENDIX. 

other similar plants. It is a small black bug, or 
beetle, named Haltica from its leaping habits. 

The best mode of avoiding injury from these in- 
sects, is to sprinkle the young plants daily with a 
mixture of one part of urine with three parts of some 
intensely bitter infusion — such as the infusion or 
decoction of tansy, wormwood, &c. The effect of 
such a mixture is two-fold. The bitter water 
renders the tender plants offensive to the insects, 
while the urine greatly increases the rapidity of their 
growth, and consequently soon brings them beyond 
their reach. 



APHIDES, OR PLANT LICE. 

The Aphides are a numerous and exceedingly 
curious race of insects. They present many varie- 
ties, of which those infesting turnips, cabbages, 
radishes, &c, and the Aphis Lanata, or apple-tree 
louse, are the most important. The plant louse is a 
small whitish-green insect, which fixes itself either 
on the under side of the leaf, or on the bark of the 
stem or branches of trees ; and generally remains in 
one position through life. It is almost always found 
congregated together in immense numbers, and it 
multiplies with astonishing rapidity ; so much so, 
that a single Aphis, or louse, may be the parent of 
millions in one season. 

They have no mouth, and maintain their existence 
by sucking the juice of the plant to which they are 

What is the appearance of this insect, and why is it called 
Haltica ? What is the best mode of avoiding injury from these 
insects? What are the effects of such a mixture ? What are 
Aphides ? What do the Aphides present ? Which are the most 
important varieties ? What is generally the appearance of the 
Aphis or plant-louse? Where does it fix itself ? How are they 
generally found ? How rapidly do they multiply ? How do they 
maintain their existence ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 171 

fixed ; and those varieties which fasten themselves 
to the leaves, convert the juice into a sweet honey- 
like substance, which sometimes falls to the ground 
in considerable quantities, attracting great numbers 
of ants, flies, wasps, &c, to feed on it. It is un- 
doubtedly this product of the Aphis which some have 
called honey-dew, and to which they have ascribed 
qualities injurious to vegetation. They often cover 
themselves with a whitish mealy substance, which 
gives them a peculiar appearance. 

The Aphis Lanata is distinguished by its attach- 
ing itself to the bark of the apple, willow, and some 
other trees. It is easily and completely destroyed 
by the free application of white-wash, or a few 
washings with strong soap-suds. The other varie- 
ties are not so easily destroyed, on account of their 
situation on the under side of the leaf, and the ten- 
derest parts of the stem. Perhaps the surest mode of 
preventing their injurious effects, is to watch closely 
and pluck off and destroy the first colony that ap- 
pears, and thereby prevent their increase. The 
many washes, such as soap-suds, tobacco-juice, hot 
water, &c, which have been reported as remedies, 
are at least of doubtful efficacy, if for no other reason 
than the almost impossibility of applying them 
directly to the vermin. 

The Coccus Arboreum Lineatus of Geoffry is only 
another species of bark louse, and is found in im- 
mense numbers on the bark of young apple trees. 



When fastened on the leaves, what effect do they produce on 
the juice of the plant ? What is honey-dew ? With what does 
the Aphis often cover itself? How is the Aphis Lanata distin- 
guished ? How may it be easily destroyed ? Why are not the 
other varieties as easily destroyed ? What is the best mode of 
destroying them ? Why are not the many washes, &c, that 
have been proposed, effectual ? What other species of bark louse 
is there ? 



172 APPENDIX. 

It is effectually destroyed in the same way as the 
Aphis Lanata. 

CLISIOCAMPA AMERICANA, OR APPLE TREE CATER- 
PILLAR. 

This very troublesome animal is too well known to 
every one who has observed an orchard in the spring 
and early part of summer, to need a particular descrip- 
tion here. The eggs from which the worms are 
derived are generally deposited on the branches of 
apple or cherry trees, and hatch about the time the 
leaves begin to appear in the spring. They soon 
weave for themselves a large white net-work or web, 
into which they congregate in immense numbers. 
They feed on the young leaves, and such are their 
numbers and voracity, that they sometimes strip an 
entire tree of its foliage in a few weeks. Indeed, 
during the last few years this caterpillar has multi- 
plied to such an extent as to completely destroy the 
leaves and blossoms (and of course the fruit) of whole 
orchards. 

But such a result can only be effected by the cul- 
pable negligence of the owner ; for, as in all other 
cases, many remedies have been proposed, yet there 
is one, and only one, infallible remedy, viz : a lad- 
der and a good firm pair of mittens, with fearless and 
faithful hands in them. Thus equipped, as soon as 
all the eggs are hatched and the web or nest is so 
conspicuous as not to be overlooked, they should be 
seized in mass, and with one grasp of the hands 

How may it be destroyed ? What is the name of the apple 
tree caterpillar ? Where are its eggs usually deposited, and 
when ? What do the young worms or larvae do first ? On what 
do they feed, and to what extent ? What has it effected within 
a few years ? What is the only effectual and certain remedy ? 
How should they be destroyed ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS 



173 



crushed to death. This not only effectually saves 
the orchard for the present year, hut it prevents a 
succeeding generation, and therefore protects, in a 
great measure, for the year to come. 

PHALJENA VERNATA, OR CANKER WORM. 

The Phalsena Vernata is the parent moth of the 
canker worm, sometimes called surveyor, loper cater- 
pillar, or inch worm, from its manner of traveling. 
The moths generally make their appearance in 
March, or as early as the warmth of spring com- 
mences. The male is possessed of perfect wings, 
and flies with ease ; but the female has only the 
rudiments of wings, and moves only by crawling. 
As soon as they appear, they hasten to the nearest 
fruit tree, which they ascend, generally to the ex- 
tremities of the topmost branches, and then glue 
their eggs to the fruit buds or small twigs, and soon 
die. The same degree of warmth that causes the 
buds and blossoms to open, causes these eggs to 
hatch; and neither rain nor cold will destroy their 
vitality. 

The young worms are scarcely larger than a hair, 
and nearly transparent. They feed on the delicate 
leaves, blossoms, and young fruit — their voracity 
increasing with their size. When very numerous, 
they protect themselves by a small web or net, much 
less conspicuous, however, than the nest of the apple 
tree caterpillar. Their period of growth continues 

What does this prevent ? What is the parent moth of the 
canker worm ? What other names has this worm ? When do 
the moths appear ? What is the difference between the male 
and the female ? Where and in what manner do they deposit 
their eggs ? What causes the eggs to hatch ? Are they affect- 
ed by cold or wet ? What is the appearance of the young larva? 
or worms ? On what do they feed ? In what respect do they 
resemble the Clisiocampa Americana ? 



174 APPENDIX. 

about four weeks, at the end of which time they 
forsake the tree, sometimes letting themselves down 
by a minute thread, like the spider, at others falling 
or crawling down to the earth. The worm now 
penetrates the earth two or three inches, where they 
remain dormant, or in the chrysalis state, until the 
next spring, when they again make their way to the 
surface in the shape of the perfect moth. If, how- 
ever, accidental causes should bring the dormant 
worm to the surface, where it would be exposed to 
the full heat of summer, it undergoes its transforma- 
tion into the moth state in the autumn instead of 
spring. 

The ravages of this worm have been hitherto con- 
fined chiefly to the Atlantic States ; and in some 
sections of these it has committed great depredations. 
Fortunately it has many enemies ; for the eggs are 
attacked by one or two species of flies, the worms 
are picked from the trees by birds, and a large 
ground beetle feeds on them in the dormant state. 
These, together with the absence of perfect wings 
on the female moth, effectually prevent it from 
spreading, at least with any considerable rapidity. 

As the female moth can ascend the tree to deposit 
her eggs only by crawling up the trunk, many plans 
have been devised for preventing her ascent, one of 
which lias been patented by Mr. Dennis, of Rhode 
island. Perhaps the cheapest and most effectual 
mode yet devised, is to surround the trunk of the 
tree with a wooden box six inches deep. The box 

How long do they continue to grow, and how do they leave 
the tree 2 Where and how long do they remain dormant ? 
Under what circumstances does it undergo its transformations 
sooner ? To what sections of the country have the ravages of 
this insect been confined ? By what other animals are they de- 
stroyed ? How does the female moth ascend the tree ? Can 
you describe the cheapest and most effectual mode of counteract- 
ing the depredations of this insect ? 



PLATE III. 




1. A. Rhynchaenus Nenu- 
phar, or plum weevil, about 
three times its natural size. 

B. Plum also magnified. 

i. Semicircular incision 
made by the weevil. 



Fig. 2. A. Calandra Granaria, 
much magnified. 

B. The weevil of its 
natural size. 





Fig. 3. Saperda Bivittata, or 
apple-tree borer. 



Fig. 4. Clytus 
locust borer. 



Pictus, or 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 177 

is made by simply nailing four pieces of board 
together, with their lower edges firmly imbedded in 
the earth, and on the top a strip two or three inches 
wide, nailed in such a manner as to form a kind of 
cap or shelf outwardly. The whole outside of the 
box and under side of the projecting cap should be 
kept well smeared with tar, cart-grease, or anything 
of an offensive and oily nature. The female moth 
cannot well get over this kind of box or cap, and 
hence all the ravages of the worm on the tree are 
prevented. 



SAPERDA BIVITTATA, OR APPLE-TREE BORER. 

The Saperda Bivittata is an insect with the head 
vertical and as broad as the chest ; body cylindrical ; 
inferior lip straight; antennae filiform, terminating 
in an elongated joint. The upper side of the body 
is marked with two white longitudinal stripes, be- 
tween three of a light-brown color ; face, antennae, 
under side of the body, and legs, all white. 

It makes its appearance early in June, and soon 
deposits its eggs on the bark of the tree, near its 
roots. In seven or eight days these hatch into a 
round, white grub or maggot, without any appear- 
ance of legs. It soon eats its way through the bark, 
beneath which it burrows the first winter; and 
during the two following years it cuts its way into 
the sap-wood, taking an upward direction, some- 
times to the depth of several inches. About the 

* See Plate III., Fig. 3. 

What should be applied to the outside of the box ? What is 
the parent of the apple-tree borer ? Describe the insect. At 
what season does it appear, and where does it deposit its eggs ? 
How long before these hatch ? What does the worm do the first 
year ? W r hat is its course the second and third year ? 



178 APPENDIX. 

third or fourth year it becomes transformed into the 
insect which we have described, and comes out to 
seek its mate and deposit its eggs. 

So numerous are these grubs or worms, that they 
sometimes entirely destroy the life of the tree ; and 
are at all times injurious to its health and growth. 
Three or four modes have been recommended for 
destroying this worm ; such as plugging up the hole 
with soft wood ; injecting into it liquids calculated 
to destroy the worm, such as strong lye, solution of 
corrosive sublimate, &c. ; cutting them out with a 
chisel or knife ; or killing them by thrusting a wire 
into their holes. Of all these methods, the latter is 
undoubtedly the safest and best ; but it will be ob- 
served that none of these methods attack the worm 
until it has done at least a part of its mischief. 

Mr. Buckminster's method of washing the trunk 
of the tree, especially near the ground, every year 
about the time the eggs are hatched, is, in our 
opinion, a much better and easier method. Two or 
three washings with strong lye, during the last half 
of June and the first of July, would doubtless com- 
pletely destroy the eggs and avoid all injury. Of 
course all suckers or sprouts should be kept from the 
roots. This worm often attacks the quince, moun- 
tain ash, and hawthorn, as well as the apple tree. 

CARPOCAPSA POMONELLA, OR APPLE WORM. 

The Carpocapsa Pomonella, known as the codling 

What change does it undergo during the third or fourth year ? 
What effect do they have on the apple tree ? What modes of 
destroying this worm have been suggested ? Which is the safest 
and best ? What objection rests against them all ? Who has 
proposed a much better method, and what is it ? When and 
how often should the washings be applied ? What other trees 
besides the apple tree does this worm attack ? What is the 
name of the parent moth of the apple worm ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 179 

or fruit moth, appears about the first of July, and, 
without puncturing the apple, it deposits its eggs in 
the hollow at the blossom end. In a few days the 
eggs hatch, and the young worms commence pene- 
trating into the apple directly towards the core, 
leaving a small hole from which its chips and ex- 
cretions are thrown out. In about three weeks the 
worm has penetrated to the core of the apple, and 
attains its full size about the first of August. They 
often cut a hole directly through the side of the 
apple also, to enable them the more easily to keep 
their burrow clear. 

Sometimes the worm leaves the apple before it 
falls ; but generally the injury which the apple has 
received causes it to fall prematurely, when the 
worm leaves it, incloses itself in a cocoon, remains 
dormant or in a chrysalis state a few days, and again 
comes out a moth or perfect insect, to renew its dep- 
redations on another set of apples. This second 
crop remain in the fruit when gathered, and do not 
undergo their change into the moth or insect until 
the following spring. 

In some seasons, especially in New-England, the 
whole apple crop has been greatly injured by this 
insect ; and I have now a choice tree on my premises, 
the apples on which, the last year, were rendered 
almost entirely worthless by it. 

The only mode of destroying the apple worm 
which can be relied on, is to shake the tree well 
about the first of August, that all the apples already 

At what time does it appear, and where does it deposit its 
eggs ? How long before the eggs hatch, and what is the course 
of the young worms ? When does it attain its full size ? What 
changes does it then undergo ? How long does it remain dor- 
mant ? What becomes of the second class ? When do they 
change into the moth again ? To what extent is the apple crop 
sometimes injured by this worm 1 What is the only reliable 
mode of destroying this worm ? At what time should this be done ? 



180 APPENDIX. 

injured may fall off, and then carefully gather them 
up and destroy them, by feeding- to hogs or other- 
wise. Some recommend letting swine run in the 
orchard for this purpose. 

SCOLYTUS PYRI, OR PEAR BLIGHT. 

This is a beetle of a dark-brown color, about one- 
tenth of an inch in length, which deposits an egg 
near the root of the bud. The egg hatches into a 
small worm, which penetrates towards the centre of 
the branch, and burrows around the pith, cutting off 
a great part of the circulation of sap, and causing 
the branch to wither and die. This is repeated until 
the whole tree becomes dead. It is but a few years 
since, that many fine pear trees were entirely lost by 
this beetle and worm. But this may be entirely 
prevented by simply removing every branch as soon 
as it begins to appear withered, and burning it to 
ash. 

RHYNCH^ENUS NENUPHAR, 

This is a beetle of a dark-brown color, one-fifth 
of an inch in length, with a long curved snout, 
which it uses for puncturing the fruit. The punc- 
tures are made in a semicircular form, and in each 
one or more eggs are deposited, which hatch into a 
small white grub or worm. This feeds on the pulp 
and juices of the green fruit, causing it to become 



* 



See Plate III., Fig. 1. 



Describe the Scolytus Pyri. Where does it deposit its eggs ? 
How do the worms injure the tree ? What trees do they mostly 
injure ? How may they be prevented ? What is the name of 
the plum weevil ? Describe the Rhynchaenus Nenuphar. How 
and where does this insect attack the plum? What is the ap- 
pearance of the young larvae or worms ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 181 

gummy, and often withered. When the worm has 
arrived at maturity, it leaves the fruit and enters the 
ground, where it remains three or four weeks, and 
again appears in the form of a beetle, or perfect 
insect. 

This insect not only attacks plums, cherries, 
peaches, &c, but its grub or worm penetrates the 
branches also, causing them first to become filled 
with black, mossy looking spots, and ultimately to 
die. Indeed, so destructive has this insect been to 
the plum and cherry trees in some places, that their 
culture is well nigh abandoned. 

The only effectual mode of destroying or prevent- 
ing its effects, is to carefully gather up and cause to 
be consumed, either by fowls, hogs, or fire, all the 
early fallen and withered fruit, and also every twig, 
as soon as a black spot appears on it. To accom- 
plish this more effectually, blankets should be spread 
under the trees and they shook violently. If this is 
done soon after the trees are in blossom, very many 
of the insects will fall on the blankets and may be 
destroyed. And if it is repeated again in four or 
five weeks, most of the affected fruit will fall with 
the worms in it, and may also be destroyed. (?) If 
this process is repeated two or three times at each 
of these periods, the injurious effects of this destruc- 
tive little animal will be almost entirely prevented. 
It is true, that this remedy requires vigilance on the 
part of the fruit-grower ; and so does everything 
else worth accomplishing. 

On what does it feed, and what are its effects ? Where and 
how long does it remain dormant ? What kinds of fruit does this 
insect attack ? Are its injurious effects confined to the fruit 
alone ? What is the appearance of the branches, and how 
far do its injurious effects sometimes extend ? What is 
the principal remedy ? How dan it be most effectually acconv 
plished ? 

9 



182 APPENDIX. 

^EGIRA EXITIOSA, OR PEACH BORER. 

This wasp-like moth generally makes its appear- 
ance in July, and deposits its eggs on the peach tree, 
near its roots, in the same manner as the Saperda 
Bivittata, or apple-tree borer. Indeed, the habits of 
this moth, and the grub or worm which results from 
it, in regard to the peach tree, so closely resemble 
the influence of the latter on the apple tree, that we 
need not repeat the description. The peach borer 
sometimes, however, penetrates the trunk of the 
tree higher up than the Saperda. Mixing salt, ash, 
or lime, with the earth around the tree, and two or 
three washings of the trunk with lye during the 
month of July and first of August, are the best 
remedies. 



CLYTUS PICTUS. 

This pest of the locust tree makes its appearance 
in September. Its bod}' is black, with numerous 
ziz-zag streaks of yellow running across it ; tips of 
the wings edged with yellow ; and legs of a dull 
red. Soon after their appearance they deposit their 
eggs in the crevices or depressions of the bark of the 
locust. These soon hatch, presenting a small 
white grub, which immediately penetrates the bark, 
beneath which they remain torpid during the first 
winter. In the spring they penetrate the wood, in 
winding passages, which give rise to swellings in the 
tree or limbs, and greatly impair its nourishment. 

* See Plate III., Fig. 4. 

What is the ^Egira Exitiosa ? In what respect does it resem- 
ble the Saperda Bivittata ? What are the best remedies, and 
when should they be applied ? When does the Clytus Pictus 
make its appearance ? What tree does it attack ? Describe the 
moth and also its larva or worm ? Where and how do they 
attack and injure the tree ? 



INSECTS AND WORMS. 183 

The grub attains its full size about the middle of 
July, and leave the tree in the form of beetles or 
insects, in September. The principal means em- 
ployed to destroy the Clytus, is to gather them off 
from the tree when they first make their appearance 
in September. Mr. Harris thinks that an hour a 
day devoted to this business, for a few days in suc- 
cession, would clear the tree of them entirely. 



CURRANT-BUSH WORM. 

For several years we have noticed, about the last 
of July or first of August, the appearance of a small 
green worm of a caterpillar form, but possessing the 
soft and glairy appearance of the snail, on the leaves 
of currant and gooseberry bushes ; and the same, or 
one very nearly identical, on the cherry tree. If 
unchecked in their progress, they speedily become 
so numerous as to strip the bushes entirely of their 
foliage, and cause the cherry-tree leaves to look as 
though they had been severely burned. 

The late Mr. Gaylord recommended sprinkling 
the bushes with an infusion of Cayenne pepper ; 
but a cheaper method, which we have found by 
three or four years' experience to be entirely success- 
ful, is to sow the bushes or trees over freely with 
dry, unleached ash, three times within the first ten 
days after the worm shows itself. The ash or ashes 
should be applied while the bushes are wet with dew 
or rain. 



When do the grubs attain their fall size ? What is the prin- 
cipal mode of destroying them ? What kind of a worm some- 
times attacks the currant and gooseberry bush, &c. ? What 
effects do they produce ? What was recommended by the late 
Mr. Gaylord ? What constitutes a cheaper and equally effectual 
method of arresting their progress? At what time and how 
often should the ash be applied ? Tn what condition should the 
bushps be ? 



184 APPENDIX. 

There are many other insects and worms more or 
less injurious to vegetation, which we might allude 
to did our limits permit ; but enough has been writ- 
ten to impress the reader with the importance of this 
branch of study. And if it but awakens in the 
mind an interest in the subject, and thereby induces 
a more general study of Entomology by our agri- 
culturists, we shall feel abundantly paid for our 
labor. For more extended works on the subject of 
this chapter, we take pleasure in referring the reader 
to the works of Harris, Gaylord, and the interesting 
articles of Dr. Asa Fitch, in the American Quarterly 
Journal of Agriculture and Science. 



CHAPTER II. 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 

Recently much has been said about Guano as a 
manure, and much has been imported into various 
countries and purchased at a very high price. 
When properly prepared and applied, it is doubtless 
of great value in promoting the growth of crops. 
However, its price is not only too high for general 
use, but its supply will soon be exhausted. This is 
the less to be regretted, as we have no doubt but 
every farmer and gardener can make for himself, at 
much less expense, a manure of equal value. 

Are there any other insects and worms injurious to vegetation 
besides those already described ? To what interesting works 
may the reader refer with great profit ? What has recently 
attracted much attention as a manure ? What will prevent 
guano from being extensively used ? Why is this to be but little 
regretted ? 



15 


pounds 


10 


cc 


10 


cc 


6 


cc 


5 


cc 


3 


a 


5 


cc 


7 


cc 


20 


cc 


10 


cc 


5 


cc 


2 


cc 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 185 

For instance, if we mix the following substances 
in the proportions stated, viz : — 

Phosphate of lime, (burnt bones,) 
Carbonate of Ammonia, 
Phosphate of Soda, 
Sulphate of Magnesia, 
Muriate of Ammonia, - 
Sulphate of Soda, - 
Sulphate of Potash, 
Nitrate of Potash, 
Humate of Potash, 
Apocrenate of Ammonia, 
Oxide of Manganese, 
Bog Iron Ore, 

they form a compound which may be used in all 
respects like the natural Guano, and with equal if 
not greater Benefit. All the materials may be pro- 
cured at any drug store, except the Humate of Pot- 
ash and Apocrenate of Ammonia, both of which 
any farmer can make for himself: the first by 
melting saw-dust with a strong solution of caustic 
potash or strong lye, in an iron kettle; and the 
second by saturating swamp muck with a solution of 
Carbonate of Ammonia. 

Every 100 pounds of this Artificial Guano, as the 
mixture has been called, need not cost more than 
$3 50. For use, it should be mixed with four or 
five times its weight of good earth. And of this 
mixture, from 500 to 1,500 pounds may be applied 
to the acre of either grain or grass land. For grain 
crops, it may be sown broad-cast, like plaster, and 

What substances may be so mixed as to form a good imitation 
of, and substitute for guano ? How may the humate of potash 
be made ? How the apocrenate of ammonia ? What is the cost 
per 100 lbs. of this artificial mixture ? With what should it be 
mixed for use ? How much may be applied to the acre ? How 
should it be applied to grain crops ? 



186 APPENDIX. 

harrowed in with the seed ; for corn, it may be ap- 
plied in the hill. 

If sown on meadows, or old grass lands, it should 
be done in wet weather, and it will be still better to 
drag the ground immediately afterwards. For use 
in the liquid form, as is sometimes desirable in gar- 
dens, one pound of the Guano, unmixed with earth, 
may be dissolved in four gallons of water, and ap- 
plied in small quantities at a time, around the roots 
of plants. 

After all that has been said through the Agricul- 
tural Journals in this country and in Europe about 
Artificial Manures, we must still contend that not 
only every farmer, but also every man who has a 
garden and a family, has all the materials for a full 
supply of manure, more enriching and better 
adapted to his wants than all the costly Guano or 
artificial mixtures that can be either imported from 
abroad or contrived at home ; and that, too, with 
no other direct expenditure of money than the cost of 
a half dozen bushels of lime or plaster annually. 

How the farmer, with his barn and farm stock, 
may do this, we have already described in another 
part of this work. But there are thousands in vil- 
lages and cities who have gardens, but no stables 
from which to supply them with manure. If all 
such persons would, in some convenient corner of 
the garden or premises, prepare a tank, or large 
square box, and throw into it all the weeds, grass, 
or other waste vegetable matter to be found during 
the season in the yard and garden, with frequent 
layers of ash from their own hearths or stoves, and 
occasionally one of lime or plaster, together with all 

How should it be applied to corn ? At what time should it be 
sown on meadows ? How may it be used in the liquid form ? 
How may the gardener obtain a quantity of pood manure suffic- 
ient for his wants ? 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 187 

the bones and gleanings of the kitchen, all the soap- 
suds that is usually thrown away, and the urine that 
is emptied from vessels kept in the house, they 
would accumulate every year an ample supply for 
the garden of the very best quality of manure. 

It might be objected by some, that such a heap of 
decaying and fermenting materials would be offen- 
sive and unwholesome ; but the ash and plaster dis- 
tributed through it effectually prevent this, by ab- 
sorbing all the offensive gases as fast as they are 
formed. The heap should, of course, be sheltered 
so as to prevent its soluble and most enriching parts 
from being washed away by rains. 

What prevents such a heap from becoming offensive ? Why 
should it be sheltered from rain ? 



3 47 7 4 



